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(RE) MAPPING EMPOWERMENT OUTCOMES AMONG MARRIED WOMEN IN RURAL INDIA: A PANEL DATA STUDY
Corresponding Author(s) : Asoke Howlader
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 7 No. 6 (2019): November
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This paper endeavours to re-examine the socio-economic factors influencing empowerment among married women in rural India over two points of time, 2005 and 2012. It examines the interplay of the work status of rural married women and the poverty status of their household in influencing empowerment.
Methodology: The study uses the nationally representative multi-topic India Human Development Survey (IHDS). IHDS panel data has been utilized to assess the entry and exit from a workforce of rural married women, to define the components of empowerment among rural married women and analyze the socio-economic factors influencing the empowerment among rural married women.
Main Findings: The outcomes show the increase in the overall empowerment rates in spite of their mobility constraints seem to have badly risen during the period 2005-2012, especially in the context of deteriorating work input among rural women. Moreover, working rural married women from BPL (Below Poverty Line) rural households are less likely to be empowered as compared to working rural married women from APL (Above Poverty Line) households.
Applications of this study: The rural female work participation rate is declining in the phase of rising economic growth and education. In this context, their empowerment would not only benefit their personal lives but also impact their economic lives, thus contribute to the country`s GDP. This makes it vital to analyze as to what comprises their empowerment in the first place so that it can be promoted through various schemes.
Novelty/Originality of this study: Women’s economic empowerment and their participation in work are essential to bringing in the fullest demographic dividend for inclusive economic escalation and sustainable development in India. Thus, empowerment which may not necessarily be implied by employment is conditioned upon the poverty status of the household. However, the empowerment of rural married women is facilitated by higher education of self, husband and other family members.
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- Agarwal, B. (1997). Bargaining and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household. Feminist Economics, 3(1), 1-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/135457097338799 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/135457097338799
- Arora, S. (2017). Empowering women through job creation, Livemint, 28th Nov, 2017, Retrieved from URL: http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/L6x5UGBL04e736FYCIHWZO/Empowering-women-through-job-creation.html.
- Aslam, M. (2013). Empowering Women: Education and the Pathways of Change, Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2013/4, UNESCO.
- Assaad, R., Nazier, H. and Ramadan, R. (2014). Individual and Households Determinants of Women Empowerment: Application to the Case of Egypt, The Economic Research Forum Working Paper No. 867, Egypt. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3058289 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3058289
- Bloom, SS., Wypij, D., Gupta, MD. (2001). Dimensions of women’s autonomy and the influence of maternal health care utilization in a north Indian city. Demography 38(1), 67-78. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2001.0001
- Boserup, E. (1970). Woman's role in economic development. New York: St. Martin's Press.
- Cornwall, A. (2016). Women's empowerment: What works?. Journal of International Development, 28(3), 342-359. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3210 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3210
- Desai, S. & Johnson (2005): Women's Decision Making and Child Health: Familial and Social Hierarchies, A Focus on Gender: Collected papers on Gender Using DHS data, Maryland, U.S.A, USAID.
- Drèze,J. & Sen,A. (1989): Hunger and Public Action, Clarendon: Oxford University Press.
- Dwivedi, V. (2017). India needs its women in the workplace, Livemint, 11th Dec, 2017, Retrieved from URL: http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/id94nUrvoIN8BaIoLlYJ6O/India-needs-its-women-in-the-workplace.html.
- Govindasamy, P. & Malhotra, A.(1996). Women’s position and family planning in Egypt, Studies in Family Planning, 27(6), 328-340. https://doi.org/10.2307/2138028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2138028
- Heise, L., & Manji, K. (2016). Social Norms, GSDRC Professional Development Reading Pack No. 31. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 10.
- Jejeebhoy, S. J. (2000). Women's autonomy in rural India: Its dimensions, determinants, and the influence of context. na.
- Jejeebhoy, S. J., & Sathar, Z. A. (2001). Women's Autonomy In India And Pakistan: The Influence Of Religion And Region. Population and Development Review, 27(4), 687-712. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2001.00687.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2001.00687.x
- Jose, S. (2007). Women, paid work, and empowerment in India: a review of evidence and issues. New Delhi: Centre for Women's Development Studies, Occasional Paper No.48.
- Kabeer, N., Mahmud, S. & Tasneem, S. (2011). Does paid work provide a Pathway to Women's Empowerment? : empirical findings from Bangladesh, Working paper series No. 375, Brighton: IDS.
- Kabeer, N. (1997). Women, Wages and Intra-household Power Relations in Urban Bangladesh, Development and Change 28(2), 1997. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00043 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00043
- Kantor, P. (2003). Women's empowerment through home-based work: Evidence from India, Development and Change, 34(3), 425- 445. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00313 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00313
- Kishor,S. & Subaiya, L.(2005). Household Decision Making As Empowerment: A Methodological View, Paper prepared for presentation at the 2005 Meeting of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP) in Tours, France.
- Krogh, E., Hansen, T. N., Wendt, S., & Elkjaer, M. (2009). Promoting employment for women as a strategy for poverty reduction. Promoting Pro-Poor Growth, 133.
- Malhotra, A. & Mather, M.(1997). Do schooling and work empower women in developing countries? Gender and domestic decisions in Sri Lanka. Sociological Forum, 12(4), 599-630. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022126824127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022126824127
- Mason, K. O., & Smith, H. L. (2003). Women’s empowerment and social context: Results from five Asian countries. Gender and Development Group, World Bank, Washington, DC.
- Mehra, R. (1997). Women, Empowerment, And Economic Development. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 554(1), 136-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716297554001009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716297554001009
- Pearson,R.(2004). Women, work and empowerment in a global era, Ids Bulletin- Institute of Development Studies, 35(4), 2004. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2004.tb00164.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2004.tb00164.x
- Raju, S. (2010). Mapping the World Of Women's Work: Regional Patterns and Perspectives. New Delhi: ILO Asia/Pacific Working Paper Series.
- Sen, P. (1999). Enhancing Women's Choices in Responding to Domestic Violence in Calcutta: A Comparison of Employment and Education, European Journal of Development Research, 11(2), 65-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/09578819908426739 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09578819908426739
- Subbarao, K. & Raney,L. (1993). Social Gains from Female Education: A Cross-National Study. World Bank Discussion Paper No.194, Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-2387-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-2387-3
- Sundaram, A., & Vanneman, R. (2008). Gender Differentials In Literacy In India: The Intriguing Relationship with Women’s Labor Force Participation. World Development, 36(1), 128-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.02.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.02.017
References
Agarwal, B. (1997). Bargaining and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household. Feminist Economics, 3(1), 1-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/135457097338799 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/135457097338799
Arora, S. (2017). Empowering women through job creation, Livemint, 28th Nov, 2017, Retrieved from URL: http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/L6x5UGBL04e736FYCIHWZO/Empowering-women-through-job-creation.html.
Aslam, M. (2013). Empowering Women: Education and the Pathways of Change, Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2013/4, UNESCO.
Assaad, R., Nazier, H. and Ramadan, R. (2014). Individual and Households Determinants of Women Empowerment: Application to the Case of Egypt, The Economic Research Forum Working Paper No. 867, Egypt. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3058289 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3058289
Bloom, SS., Wypij, D., Gupta, MD. (2001). Dimensions of women’s autonomy and the influence of maternal health care utilization in a north Indian city. Demography 38(1), 67-78. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2001.0001
Boserup, E. (1970). Woman's role in economic development. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Cornwall, A. (2016). Women's empowerment: What works?. Journal of International Development, 28(3), 342-359. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3210 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3210
Desai, S. & Johnson (2005): Women's Decision Making and Child Health: Familial and Social Hierarchies, A Focus on Gender: Collected papers on Gender Using DHS data, Maryland, U.S.A, USAID.
Drèze,J. & Sen,A. (1989): Hunger and Public Action, Clarendon: Oxford University Press.
Dwivedi, V. (2017). India needs its women in the workplace, Livemint, 11th Dec, 2017, Retrieved from URL: http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/id94nUrvoIN8BaIoLlYJ6O/India-needs-its-women-in-the-workplace.html.
Govindasamy, P. & Malhotra, A.(1996). Women’s position and family planning in Egypt, Studies in Family Planning, 27(6), 328-340. https://doi.org/10.2307/2138028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2138028
Heise, L., & Manji, K. (2016). Social Norms, GSDRC Professional Development Reading Pack No. 31. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 10.
Jejeebhoy, S. J. (2000). Women's autonomy in rural India: Its dimensions, determinants, and the influence of context. na.
Jejeebhoy, S. J., & Sathar, Z. A. (2001). Women's Autonomy In India And Pakistan: The Influence Of Religion And Region. Population and Development Review, 27(4), 687-712. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2001.00687.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2001.00687.x
Jose, S. (2007). Women, paid work, and empowerment in India: a review of evidence and issues. New Delhi: Centre for Women's Development Studies, Occasional Paper No.48.
Kabeer, N., Mahmud, S. & Tasneem, S. (2011). Does paid work provide a Pathway to Women's Empowerment? : empirical findings from Bangladesh, Working paper series No. 375, Brighton: IDS.
Kabeer, N. (1997). Women, Wages and Intra-household Power Relations in Urban Bangladesh, Development and Change 28(2), 1997. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00043 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00043
Kantor, P. (2003). Women's empowerment through home-based work: Evidence from India, Development and Change, 34(3), 425- 445. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00313 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00313
Kishor,S. & Subaiya, L.(2005). Household Decision Making As Empowerment: A Methodological View, Paper prepared for presentation at the 2005 Meeting of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP) in Tours, France.
Krogh, E., Hansen, T. N., Wendt, S., & Elkjaer, M. (2009). Promoting employment for women as a strategy for poverty reduction. Promoting Pro-Poor Growth, 133.
Malhotra, A. & Mather, M.(1997). Do schooling and work empower women in developing countries? Gender and domestic decisions in Sri Lanka. Sociological Forum, 12(4), 599-630. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022126824127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022126824127
Mason, K. O., & Smith, H. L. (2003). Women’s empowerment and social context: Results from five Asian countries. Gender and Development Group, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Mehra, R. (1997). Women, Empowerment, And Economic Development. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 554(1), 136-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716297554001009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716297554001009
Pearson,R.(2004). Women, work and empowerment in a global era, Ids Bulletin- Institute of Development Studies, 35(4), 2004. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2004.tb00164.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2004.tb00164.x
Raju, S. (2010). Mapping the World Of Women's Work: Regional Patterns and Perspectives. New Delhi: ILO Asia/Pacific Working Paper Series.
Sen, P. (1999). Enhancing Women's Choices in Responding to Domestic Violence in Calcutta: A Comparison of Employment and Education, European Journal of Development Research, 11(2), 65-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/09578819908426739 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09578819908426739
Subbarao, K. & Raney,L. (1993). Social Gains from Female Education: A Cross-National Study. World Bank Discussion Paper No.194, Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-2387-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-2387-3
Sundaram, A., & Vanneman, R. (2008). Gender Differentials In Literacy In India: The Intriguing Relationship with Women’s Labor Force Participation. World Development, 36(1), 128-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.02.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.02.017