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ON THE BEGINNING OF MODERN INDONESIAN LITERATURE
Corresponding Author(s) : Dipa Nugraha
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 7 No. 6 (2019): November
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study aims to bridge the gap in the dispute over the beginning of modern Indonesian literature and determine which literary work marked the beginning of modern Indonesian literature.
Methodology: This uses close reading over selected texts on the usage of specific words in Malay used in anti-colonialism political movement and the existence of the words Indonesia, bangsa, negeri, tanah air, and tumpah darah as the central themes for the development of the analysis from the selected texts. The selected texts are four novels published in the Dutch East Indies in the early of twentieth century: Student Hidjo (1919), Hikajat Kadiroen (1920), Azab dan Sengsara (1920), and Sitti Nurbaja (1922).
Main Finding: We find that Azab dan Sengsara and Sitti Nurbaja have the word Indonesia and help conceptualize the new idea of the homeland. Whilst Student Hidjo and Hikajat Kadiroen do not see beyond the land of Java and they only relate the Dutch East Indies to the land of Java. We argue that Sitti Nurbaja marked the beginning of modern Indonesian literature.
Implications: The debate over the beginning of modern Indonesian literature should stop with the finding of this study that Azab dan Sengsara and Sitti Nurbaja mark the beginning of modern Indonesian literature. While Student Hidjo and Hikajat Kadiroen must be named as the modern pre-Indonesian literary works.
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- Abdullah, bin Mustaffa & Syafi’i, Abdul M. (2009). Khazanah Tafsir di Nusantara: Penelitian terhadap Tokoh dan Karyanya di Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Singapura, dan Thailand. Kontekstualita, Vol. 25, No. 1, Juli 2009, pp. 31-46.
- Adam, Ahmat. (1995). The Vernacular Press and the Emergence of Modern Indonesia Consciousness (1855-1913), New York: SEAP Publications, Cornell University.
- Alisjahbana, Sutan T. (1950). Menudju Masjarakat dan Kebudajaan Baru: Indonesia – Prae-Indonesia. In Mihardja, Achdiat K (ed.), Polemik Kebudajaan, pp. 13-21. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
- Anderson, Benedict. (2006 [1983]). Imagine Communities: Reflections of the Origin and Spread of Nationalism – Revised Edition. London & New York: Verso.
- Ave, Jan B. (1989). Indonesia, Insulinde and Nusantara; Dotting the i’s and crossing the t. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 145 (1989), no: 2/3, Leiden, 220-234. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003252
- Aveling, Harry. (1970). ’Sitti Nurbaja’: some reconsideration. Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia, 1970, Vol.126(2), pp. 228-245. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90002816 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90002816
- Bandel, Katrin. (2013). Sastra nasionalisme pascakolonialitas. Yogyakarta: Indie Book Corner.
- Chernov, Igor & Gomel, Ilana. (1991). National Literature: Theoretical Marginalia. Poetics Today, Vol. 12, No. 4, National Literatures/Social Space (Winter, 1991), pp. 769-771. https://doi.org/10.2307/1772715 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1772715
- Elson, Robert E. (2003). The Idea of Indonesia: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Enloe, Cynthia H. (2014). Banana, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (2nd edition). Berkeley & LA, California: University of California Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520957282
- Enre, Fachruddin A. (1963). Perkembangan Puisi Indonesia dalam Masa Duapuluhan. Jakarta: Gunung Agung.
- Evers, Hans-Dieter. (2016). Nusantara: History of a Concept. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 89, Part 1, No. 310, June 2016, pp. 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1353/ras.2016.0004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/ras.2016.0004
- Fanon, Frantz O. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth, Farrington, C. (trans.). New York: Grove Press.
- Fakih, Farabi. (2012). Conservative corporatist: Nationalist thoughts of aristocrats: The ideas of Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo and Noto Soeroto. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 168(4), pp. 420-444. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003551
- Foulcher, Keith. (2005). Biography, history and the Indonesian novel: Reading Salah Asuhan. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (BKI) 161-2/3 (2005): 247-268. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003709 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003709
- Freidus, Alberta J. (1977). Sumatrans contributions to the development of Indonesian literature, 1920-1942. Hawaii: The University Press of Hawaii.
- Gearson, Carole. (1988). The Changing Contours of a National Literature. College English, Vol. 50, No. 8, Canadian Literature and Rhetoric (Dec., 1988), pp. 888-895. https://doi.org/10.2307/377992 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/377992
- Hagen, James M. (1997). Read All about It: the Press and the Rise of National Consciousness in Early Twentieth-Century Dutch East Society. Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 70, No. 3 (Jul., 1997), pp. 107-126. https://doi.org/10.2307/3317671 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3317671
- Hoadley, Mason C. (1996). Ethnicity in Modern Indonesian Literature: the Novels of Abdul Moeis and Pramoedya Ananta Toer. In Littrup, Lisbeth (ed.), Identity in Asian Literature, pp. 103-128. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press Ltd.
- Janicke, S., Franzini, G., Cheema M. F., & Scheuermann G. (2015) On close and distant reading in digital humanities: A survey and future challenges. In Borgo R., Ganovelli F., Viola I., (Eds.), Eurographics Conference on Visualization (EuroVis): STARs (2015), pp. 83-103. The Eurographics Association.
- Jassin, Hans B. (1987). Pujangga Baru; Prosa dan Puisi. Jakarta: CV Haji Masagung.
- Johns, Anthony H. (1959). “Indonesian literature and the social upheaval,†Australian Journal of International Affairs, 13:4, pp. 293-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357715908444064 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10357715908444064
- Jones, Russell. (1975). George Windson Earl and ‘Indonesia’ — I, Indonesia Circle. School of Oriental & African Studies. Newsletter, 3:7, 12-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03062847508723606 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03062847508723606
- Junus, Umar. (1960). Istilah dan Masa Waktu ‘Sastera Melayu’ dan ‘Sastera Indonesia,’ Medan Ilmu Pengetahuan, Tahun I No. 3 Juli 1960. pp. 245-260.
- Kartodikromo, Marco. (2018 [1919]). Student Hidjo. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Narasi.
- Laffan, Michael F. (2003). Islamic Nationhood and Colonial Indonesia. London & New York: RoutledgeCurzon. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203222577 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203222577
- Littrup, Lisbeth. (1996). Introduction. In Littrup, Lisbeth (ed.), Identity in Asian Literature, pp. 1-13. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press Ltd.
- Maier, Hendrik M.J. (1996). Phew! Europeesche beschaving!: Marco Kartodikromo's Student Hidjo, Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 34, No.1, June 1996. pp. 184-210.
- Miert, Hans van. (1996). The 'Land of the Future': The Jong Sumatranen Bond (1917-1930) and Its Image of the Nation, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Jul., 1996), pp. 591-616. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00016619 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00016619
- Milner, Anthony. (2002). The Invention of Politics in the Colonial Malay. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Muhadjir. (1990). Beberapa Catatan tentang Sastra Betawi: Tinjauan Kebahasaan. In Wahyudi, Ibnu (ed.), Konstelasi Sastra: Bunga Rampai Esai Sastra, pp. 309-329. Depok: Divisi Penerbitan HISKI Pusat.
- Mujiyanto, Y & Fuady, A. (2014). Kitab Sejarah Sastra Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Ombak.
- Nagazumi, Akira. (1978). The word ‘Indonesia’: The growth of its political connotation, Indonesia Circle. School of Oriental & African Studies. Newsletter, 6:17, 28-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/03062847808723717 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03062847808723717
- OdM, A., Zakaria, Z., & Hashim, WAFW. (2016). Nusantara: Delineating Its Authentic Map Based on Indigenous Sources. Intel Prop Rights, Vol. 4, Issue 2, pp. 1-4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2375-4516.1000163 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2375-4516.1000163
- Poeze, H. A. (1989). Early Indonesian emancipation; Abdul Rivai, van Heutsz, and the Bintang Hindia. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 145(1), 87-106. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003263 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003263
- Rahmat, Hadijah BTE. (1996). In Search of Modernity - a Study of the Concepts of Literature, Authorship and Notions of Self in “Traditional†Malay Literature. Thesis. University of London – School of Oriental and African Studies.
- Rieger, Thomas. (1996). From Huaqiao to Minzu: Constructing New Identities in Indonesia’s Peranakan-Chinese Literature. In Littrup, Lisbeth (ed.), Identity in Asian Literature, pp. 151-172. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press Ltd.
- Rosidi, Ajip. (1973). Mas’alah Angkatan dan Periodisasi Sedjarah Sastra Indonesia. In Rosidi, A., Masalah Angkatan dan Periodisasi Sedjarah Sastra Indonesia, pp. 9-27. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya.
- Rosidi, Ajip. (1985). Kapankah Kesusasteraan Indonesia Lahir? In Rosidi, A., Kapankah Kesusasteraan Indonesia Lahir? Beserta Sepilihan Karangan Lainnya (Edisi yang Diperbarui). Jakarta: Gunung Agung.
- Rusli, Marah. (2013 [1922]). Sitti Nurbaja. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
- Semaun. (2014 [1920]). Hikayat Kadiroen. Bandung: Sega Arsy.
- Siregar, Bakri. (1964). Sedjarah Sastera Indonesia Modern. Jakarta: Akademi Sastera dan Bahasa Multatuli.
- Siregar, Merari. (2010 [1920]). Azab dan Sengsara. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
- Stutje, Klaas. (2013). Indonesian Identities Abroad International Engagement of Colonial Students in the Netherlands, 1908-1931, BMGN - Low Countries Historical Review, Volume 128-1 (2013), pp. 151-172. https://doi.org/10.18352/bmgn-lchr.8359 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18352/bmgn-lchr.8359
- Stutje, Klaas. (2014). Indonesian nationalism out of place, Long Distance Nationalism 0.5. Paper in International Conference Political History, Leiden, 4-6 September 2014.
- Stutje, Klaas. (2018). Indonesian Nationalism in the Netherlands, 1920s-1930s: Long-Distance Internationalism of Elite Pilgrims in Homogeneous, Empty Time. In Blok, G., Kuitenbrouwer, V. & Weeda, C. (eds.), Imagining Communities: Historical Reflections on the Process of Community Formation, pp. 131-148. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048529162-008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048529162-008
- Teeuw, A. (1972). The Impact of Balai Pustaka on Modern Indonesian Literature. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 35, No. 1 (1972), pp. 111-127. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00107396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00107396
- Wahyudi, Ibnu. (1990). Soal Angkatan, Soal Wawasan: Tinjauan atas Masalah Angkatan dalam Sastra Indonesia. In Wahyudi, Ibnu (ed.), Konstelasi Sastra: Bunga Rampai Esai Sastra, pp. 25-35. Depok: Divisi Penerbitan HISKI Pusat.
- Wahyudi, Ibnu. (1998). The Circumstances of Early Modem Indonesian Literature: a Preliminary Study. International Area Review, Vol. 1, No. 2, Summer 1998. https://doi.org/10.1177/223386599800100206 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/223386599800100206
- Watson, C. W. (1973). Salah asuhan and the romantic tradition in the early Indonesian novel. Modern Asian Studies, 7(2), 179-192. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00004546 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00004546
References
Abdullah, bin Mustaffa & Syafi’i, Abdul M. (2009). Khazanah Tafsir di Nusantara: Penelitian terhadap Tokoh dan Karyanya di Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Singapura, dan Thailand. Kontekstualita, Vol. 25, No. 1, Juli 2009, pp. 31-46.
Adam, Ahmat. (1995). The Vernacular Press and the Emergence of Modern Indonesia Consciousness (1855-1913), New York: SEAP Publications, Cornell University.
Alisjahbana, Sutan T. (1950). Menudju Masjarakat dan Kebudajaan Baru: Indonesia – Prae-Indonesia. In Mihardja, Achdiat K (ed.), Polemik Kebudajaan, pp. 13-21. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
Anderson, Benedict. (2006 [1983]). Imagine Communities: Reflections of the Origin and Spread of Nationalism – Revised Edition. London & New York: Verso.
Ave, Jan B. (1989). Indonesia, Insulinde and Nusantara; Dotting the i’s and crossing the t. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 145 (1989), no: 2/3, Leiden, 220-234. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003252
Aveling, Harry. (1970). ’Sitti Nurbaja’: some reconsideration. Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia, 1970, Vol.126(2), pp. 228-245. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90002816 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90002816
Bandel, Katrin. (2013). Sastra nasionalisme pascakolonialitas. Yogyakarta: Indie Book Corner.
Chernov, Igor & Gomel, Ilana. (1991). National Literature: Theoretical Marginalia. Poetics Today, Vol. 12, No. 4, National Literatures/Social Space (Winter, 1991), pp. 769-771. https://doi.org/10.2307/1772715 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1772715
Elson, Robert E. (2003). The Idea of Indonesia: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Enloe, Cynthia H. (2014). Banana, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (2nd edition). Berkeley & LA, California: University of California Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520957282
Enre, Fachruddin A. (1963). Perkembangan Puisi Indonesia dalam Masa Duapuluhan. Jakarta: Gunung Agung.
Evers, Hans-Dieter. (2016). Nusantara: History of a Concept. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 89, Part 1, No. 310, June 2016, pp. 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1353/ras.2016.0004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/ras.2016.0004
Fanon, Frantz O. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth, Farrington, C. (trans.). New York: Grove Press.
Fakih, Farabi. (2012). Conservative corporatist: Nationalist thoughts of aristocrats: The ideas of Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo and Noto Soeroto. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 168(4), pp. 420-444. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003551
Foulcher, Keith. (2005). Biography, history and the Indonesian novel: Reading Salah Asuhan. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (BKI) 161-2/3 (2005): 247-268. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003709 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003709
Freidus, Alberta J. (1977). Sumatrans contributions to the development of Indonesian literature, 1920-1942. Hawaii: The University Press of Hawaii.
Gearson, Carole. (1988). The Changing Contours of a National Literature. College English, Vol. 50, No. 8, Canadian Literature and Rhetoric (Dec., 1988), pp. 888-895. https://doi.org/10.2307/377992 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/377992
Hagen, James M. (1997). Read All about It: the Press and the Rise of National Consciousness in Early Twentieth-Century Dutch East Society. Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 70, No. 3 (Jul., 1997), pp. 107-126. https://doi.org/10.2307/3317671 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3317671
Hoadley, Mason C. (1996). Ethnicity in Modern Indonesian Literature: the Novels of Abdul Moeis and Pramoedya Ananta Toer. In Littrup, Lisbeth (ed.), Identity in Asian Literature, pp. 103-128. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press Ltd.
Janicke, S., Franzini, G., Cheema M. F., & Scheuermann G. (2015) On close and distant reading in digital humanities: A survey and future challenges. In Borgo R., Ganovelli F., Viola I., (Eds.), Eurographics Conference on Visualization (EuroVis): STARs (2015), pp. 83-103. The Eurographics Association.
Jassin, Hans B. (1987). Pujangga Baru; Prosa dan Puisi. Jakarta: CV Haji Masagung.
Johns, Anthony H. (1959). “Indonesian literature and the social upheaval,†Australian Journal of International Affairs, 13:4, pp. 293-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357715908444064 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10357715908444064
Jones, Russell. (1975). George Windson Earl and ‘Indonesia’ — I, Indonesia Circle. School of Oriental & African Studies. Newsletter, 3:7, 12-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03062847508723606 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03062847508723606
Junus, Umar. (1960). Istilah dan Masa Waktu ‘Sastera Melayu’ dan ‘Sastera Indonesia,’ Medan Ilmu Pengetahuan, Tahun I No. 3 Juli 1960. pp. 245-260.
Kartodikromo, Marco. (2018 [1919]). Student Hidjo. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Narasi.
Laffan, Michael F. (2003). Islamic Nationhood and Colonial Indonesia. London & New York: RoutledgeCurzon. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203222577 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203222577
Littrup, Lisbeth. (1996). Introduction. In Littrup, Lisbeth (ed.), Identity in Asian Literature, pp. 1-13. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press Ltd.
Maier, Hendrik M.J. (1996). Phew! Europeesche beschaving!: Marco Kartodikromo's Student Hidjo, Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 34, No.1, June 1996. pp. 184-210.
Miert, Hans van. (1996). The 'Land of the Future': The Jong Sumatranen Bond (1917-1930) and Its Image of the Nation, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Jul., 1996), pp. 591-616. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00016619 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00016619
Milner, Anthony. (2002). The Invention of Politics in the Colonial Malay. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Muhadjir. (1990). Beberapa Catatan tentang Sastra Betawi: Tinjauan Kebahasaan. In Wahyudi, Ibnu (ed.), Konstelasi Sastra: Bunga Rampai Esai Sastra, pp. 309-329. Depok: Divisi Penerbitan HISKI Pusat.
Mujiyanto, Y & Fuady, A. (2014). Kitab Sejarah Sastra Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Ombak.
Nagazumi, Akira. (1978). The word ‘Indonesia’: The growth of its political connotation, Indonesia Circle. School of Oriental & African Studies. Newsletter, 6:17, 28-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/03062847808723717 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03062847808723717
OdM, A., Zakaria, Z., & Hashim, WAFW. (2016). Nusantara: Delineating Its Authentic Map Based on Indigenous Sources. Intel Prop Rights, Vol. 4, Issue 2, pp. 1-4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2375-4516.1000163 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2375-4516.1000163
Poeze, H. A. (1989). Early Indonesian emancipation; Abdul Rivai, van Heutsz, and the Bintang Hindia. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 145(1), 87-106. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003263 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003263
Rahmat, Hadijah BTE. (1996). In Search of Modernity - a Study of the Concepts of Literature, Authorship and Notions of Self in “Traditional†Malay Literature. Thesis. University of London – School of Oriental and African Studies.
Rieger, Thomas. (1996). From Huaqiao to Minzu: Constructing New Identities in Indonesia’s Peranakan-Chinese Literature. In Littrup, Lisbeth (ed.), Identity in Asian Literature, pp. 151-172. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press Ltd.
Rosidi, Ajip. (1973). Mas’alah Angkatan dan Periodisasi Sedjarah Sastra Indonesia. In Rosidi, A., Masalah Angkatan dan Periodisasi Sedjarah Sastra Indonesia, pp. 9-27. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya.
Rosidi, Ajip. (1985). Kapankah Kesusasteraan Indonesia Lahir? In Rosidi, A., Kapankah Kesusasteraan Indonesia Lahir? Beserta Sepilihan Karangan Lainnya (Edisi yang Diperbarui). Jakarta: Gunung Agung.
Rusli, Marah. (2013 [1922]). Sitti Nurbaja. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
Semaun. (2014 [1920]). Hikayat Kadiroen. Bandung: Sega Arsy.
Siregar, Bakri. (1964). Sedjarah Sastera Indonesia Modern. Jakarta: Akademi Sastera dan Bahasa Multatuli.
Siregar, Merari. (2010 [1920]). Azab dan Sengsara. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
Stutje, Klaas. (2013). Indonesian Identities Abroad International Engagement of Colonial Students in the Netherlands, 1908-1931, BMGN - Low Countries Historical Review, Volume 128-1 (2013), pp. 151-172. https://doi.org/10.18352/bmgn-lchr.8359 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18352/bmgn-lchr.8359
Stutje, Klaas. (2014). Indonesian nationalism out of place, Long Distance Nationalism 0.5. Paper in International Conference Political History, Leiden, 4-6 September 2014.
Stutje, Klaas. (2018). Indonesian Nationalism in the Netherlands, 1920s-1930s: Long-Distance Internationalism of Elite Pilgrims in Homogeneous, Empty Time. In Blok, G., Kuitenbrouwer, V. & Weeda, C. (eds.), Imagining Communities: Historical Reflections on the Process of Community Formation, pp. 131-148. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048529162-008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048529162-008
Teeuw, A. (1972). The Impact of Balai Pustaka on Modern Indonesian Literature. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 35, No. 1 (1972), pp. 111-127. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00107396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00107396
Wahyudi, Ibnu. (1990). Soal Angkatan, Soal Wawasan: Tinjauan atas Masalah Angkatan dalam Sastra Indonesia. In Wahyudi, Ibnu (ed.), Konstelasi Sastra: Bunga Rampai Esai Sastra, pp. 25-35. Depok: Divisi Penerbitan HISKI Pusat.
Wahyudi, Ibnu. (1998). The Circumstances of Early Modem Indonesian Literature: a Preliminary Study. International Area Review, Vol. 1, No. 2, Summer 1998. https://doi.org/10.1177/223386599800100206 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/223386599800100206
Watson, C. W. (1973). Salah asuhan and the romantic tradition in the early Indonesian novel. Modern Asian Studies, 7(2), 179-192. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00004546 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00004546