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LIVING WITH TERROR NOT LIVING IN TERROR: RELIGIOUS FACTORS AFFECTING PEACE IN PAKISTANI AREAS OF SECTARIAN VIOLENCE
Corresponding Author(s) : Aman Ullah
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Problem and aim of the study: This study is set out to investigate the impact of misinterpretation of religious education on sectarian violence in District Hangu.
Research methods: Primary data regarding religious education and its role in sectarian violence was collected through a semi-structured questionnaire. The sample size of 279 respondents from three selected villages of District Hangu was randomly selected through the proportional allocation method. The level of significant relationship of the study variables was determined through the Chi-Square test at the Bivariate level analysis. At the multivariate level analysis sect and education were used as controlled variables.
Results: Results show that religious education has a significant role in generating sectarian violence as the observed value of 27.617 as strongly significant at a 1% level of significance. Moreover, the findings of the study revealed the relationship between madrasas’ education and sectarian violence as significant ( ≤ 0.05) for both groups i.e., literate, and illiterate.
Application of the study: This empirical work is useful in policy planning for the institutionalism of religion. Notwithstanding, a policy for formal registration of all religious madrassas is the need of the day. The present study highlights that extremist literature should be banned in madrassas and there should be a proper syllabus for these institutions. The uniformity of religious education including modern education in their syllabus might be beneficial in this regard. Further, it is needed to focus on the development of underdeveloped areas of Pakistan and encourage cross religion and sects’ dialogue.
Originality and Novelty of the study: In Pakistan, the phenomena of sectarian violence have received limited attention in the literature. The existing empirical work in this area is primarily concerned with the political and social aspects of sectarian violence. Thus, the present study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by empirically exploring the issue of sectarian violence from a religious perspective. In this study, a novel method has been applied to determine the impact of religious education on sectarian violence by controlling the background variables of sect and education of the study participants. Such an application of the novel method is believed to enhance the validity of this study and vividly expose the role of sects in the sectarian violence in the research site.
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- Abbas, S. A., & Syed, S. H. (2020, 2020/09/09/). Sectarian terrorism in Pakistan: Causes, impact and remedies. Journal of Policy Modeling. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2020.06.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2020.06.004
- Abou Zahab, M. (2002). The regional dimension of sectarian conflicts in Pakistan. Pakistan: Nationalism without a nation, 115-128.
- Ahmad, M. (1997). Revivalism, Islamization, sectarianism and violence in Pakistan. Pakistan, 101-123.
- Ahmed, K. (2013). Sectarian violence in Pakistan. Economic and Political Weekly, 40-42.
- Ali, M. A. (2000). Sectarian Conflict in Pakistan: A Case Study of Jhang. E. R. Regional Centre for Strategic Studies 2. https://www.rcss.org/publication/policy_paper/RCSS%20Policy%20Studies%209.pdf
- Ashraf, M. A. (2019). Exploring the potential of religious literacy in Pakistani education. Religions, 10(7), 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070429 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070429
- Bakhsh, R., Khan, S., & Haider, S. I. (2020). Contesting Sectarian Identity in Pakistan: Narratives from the Three Cities. Global Regional Review, 1, 51-57. https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).07 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).07
- Baytiyeh, H. (2017). Has the educational system in Lebanon contributed to the growing sectarian divisions? Education and Urban Society, 49(5), 546-559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124516645163 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124516645163
- Berger, P. L. (1954). The sociological study of sectarianism. Social Research, 467-485.
- Grare, F. (2007, 2007/04/01). The Evolution of Sectarian Conflicts in Pakistan and the Ever-Changing Face of Islamic Violence. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 30(1), 127-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/008564 00701264068 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00856400701264068
- Khalili, E. (2014). Sects in Islam: Sunnis and Shias. Humanities, 1(1), 41-47.
- Khan, S., & Chaudhry, H. (2011). Determinants of sectarianism in Pakistan: A Case Study of District Jhang’. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 8(1), 237-243.
- Khan, Z. (2016). Sectarian Rise in Pakistan: Role of Saudi Arabia and Iran. Researcher in Government and Public Policy, National Defence University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
- Lynch, M. (2013). The entrepreneurs of cynical sectarianism. POMEPS, POMEPS Studies, 4, 3-6.
- Mahsood, A. K., & Muhammad, K. (2017). History of sectarianism in Pakistan: Implications for lasting peace. Journal of Political Sciences & Public Affairs, 5(4), 2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0761.1000291 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0761.1000291
- Naaz, S. (2019). Emergence Of Sectarian Violence In Pakistan. 4D International Journal of Management and Science, 10(1), 22.
- Nasr, S. V. R. (2000). The rise of Sunni militancy in Pakistan: The changing role of Islamism and the Ulama in society and politics. Modern Asian Studies, 34(1), 139-180. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00003565 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00003565
- Nasr, V. R. (2000). International Politics, Domestic Imperatives, and Identity Mobilization: Sectarianism in Pakistan, 1979-1998. Comparative Politics, 171-190. https://doi.org/10.2307/422396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/422396
- Phillips, C. (2015). Sectarianism and conflict in Syria. Third World Quarterly, 36(2), 357-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1015788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1015788
- Roberts, K. A., & Yamane, D. (2015). Religion in sociological perspective. Sage Publications.
- Shah, M. N. (2014). Evolution of sectarianism in Pakistan: A threat to the state and society. South Asian Studies A Research Journal of South Asian Studies, 29(2), 441-459.
- Smith, C. (2014). Disruptive religion: The force of faith in social movement activism. Routledge. https://doi.org /10.4324/9781315022147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315022147
- Ullah, A., Ashraf, H., Tariq, M., Aziz, S. Z., Sikandar, K. U. R., Ali, N., Shakoor, A., & Nisar, M. (2021). Battling the Invisible Infertility Agony: A Case Study of Infertile Women in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 8(2), 89-105. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/679 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/679
- Ullah, A., & Muhammad, N. (2020). Prevalence of mental health problems among youth involved in street crimes. Rawal Medical Journal, 45(4), 938-942.
- Ullah, S., Guoqiang, H., Khan, U., & Niazi, K. (2020). State, religion and the marginalisation of traditional healing in Gwadar, Pakistan. Medical Humanities, 46(4), 444-453. https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2019-011747 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2019-011747
- Waseem, M., Kamran, T., Ali, M. A., & Riikonen, K. (2010). Dilemmas of pride and pain: sectarian conflict and conflict transformation in Pakistan.
- Zaman, M. Q. (1998). Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), 689-716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X98003217 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X98003217
References
Abbas, S. A., & Syed, S. H. (2020, 2020/09/09/). Sectarian terrorism in Pakistan: Causes, impact and remedies. Journal of Policy Modeling. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2020.06.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2020.06.004
Abou Zahab, M. (2002). The regional dimension of sectarian conflicts in Pakistan. Pakistan: Nationalism without a nation, 115-128.
Ahmad, M. (1997). Revivalism, Islamization, sectarianism and violence in Pakistan. Pakistan, 101-123.
Ahmed, K. (2013). Sectarian violence in Pakistan. Economic and Political Weekly, 40-42.
Ali, M. A. (2000). Sectarian Conflict in Pakistan: A Case Study of Jhang. E. R. Regional Centre for Strategic Studies 2. https://www.rcss.org/publication/policy_paper/RCSS%20Policy%20Studies%209.pdf
Ashraf, M. A. (2019). Exploring the potential of religious literacy in Pakistani education. Religions, 10(7), 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070429 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070429
Bakhsh, R., Khan, S., & Haider, S. I. (2020). Contesting Sectarian Identity in Pakistan: Narratives from the Three Cities. Global Regional Review, 1, 51-57. https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).07 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).07
Baytiyeh, H. (2017). Has the educational system in Lebanon contributed to the growing sectarian divisions? Education and Urban Society, 49(5), 546-559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124516645163 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124516645163
Berger, P. L. (1954). The sociological study of sectarianism. Social Research, 467-485.
Grare, F. (2007, 2007/04/01). The Evolution of Sectarian Conflicts in Pakistan and the Ever-Changing Face of Islamic Violence. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 30(1), 127-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/008564 00701264068 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00856400701264068
Khalili, E. (2014). Sects in Islam: Sunnis and Shias. Humanities, 1(1), 41-47.
Khan, S., & Chaudhry, H. (2011). Determinants of sectarianism in Pakistan: A Case Study of District Jhang’. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 8(1), 237-243.
Khan, Z. (2016). Sectarian Rise in Pakistan: Role of Saudi Arabia and Iran. Researcher in Government and Public Policy, National Defence University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Lynch, M. (2013). The entrepreneurs of cynical sectarianism. POMEPS, POMEPS Studies, 4, 3-6.
Mahsood, A. K., & Muhammad, K. (2017). History of sectarianism in Pakistan: Implications for lasting peace. Journal of Political Sciences & Public Affairs, 5(4), 2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0761.1000291 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0761.1000291
Naaz, S. (2019). Emergence Of Sectarian Violence In Pakistan. 4D International Journal of Management and Science, 10(1), 22.
Nasr, S. V. R. (2000). The rise of Sunni militancy in Pakistan: The changing role of Islamism and the Ulama in society and politics. Modern Asian Studies, 34(1), 139-180. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00003565 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00003565
Nasr, V. R. (2000). International Politics, Domestic Imperatives, and Identity Mobilization: Sectarianism in Pakistan, 1979-1998. Comparative Politics, 171-190. https://doi.org/10.2307/422396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/422396
Phillips, C. (2015). Sectarianism and conflict in Syria. Third World Quarterly, 36(2), 357-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1015788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1015788
Roberts, K. A., & Yamane, D. (2015). Religion in sociological perspective. Sage Publications.
Shah, M. N. (2014). Evolution of sectarianism in Pakistan: A threat to the state and society. South Asian Studies A Research Journal of South Asian Studies, 29(2), 441-459.
Smith, C. (2014). Disruptive religion: The force of faith in social movement activism. Routledge. https://doi.org /10.4324/9781315022147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315022147
Ullah, A., Ashraf, H., Tariq, M., Aziz, S. Z., Sikandar, K. U. R., Ali, N., Shakoor, A., & Nisar, M. (2021). Battling the Invisible Infertility Agony: A Case Study of Infertile Women in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 8(2), 89-105. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/679 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/679
Ullah, A., & Muhammad, N. (2020). Prevalence of mental health problems among youth involved in street crimes. Rawal Medical Journal, 45(4), 938-942.
Ullah, S., Guoqiang, H., Khan, U., & Niazi, K. (2020). State, religion and the marginalisation of traditional healing in Gwadar, Pakistan. Medical Humanities, 46(4), 444-453. https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2019-011747 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2019-011747
Waseem, M., Kamran, T., Ali, M. A., & Riikonen, K. (2010). Dilemmas of pride and pain: sectarian conflict and conflict transformation in Pakistan.
Zaman, M. Q. (1998). Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), 689-716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X98003217 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X98003217