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ETHICAL LEADERSHIP ENHANCE POSITIVE WORK OUTCOME: A MEDIATION MODEL
Corresponding Author(s) : Amna Ali
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: The current study was conducted to find out the relationship amongst the Ethical leadership and job outcome’s (job satisfaction and job performance), and to have in-depth into how the relationship between ethical leadership and the job outcomes is mediated by the psychological empowerment.
Methodology: The study has been conducted in the public sector hospitals of district Peshawar. Data was collected from 267 nurses working in public sector hospitals. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire, and convenience sampling was used as a sampling technique. In order to test the hypothesis, the regression-mediation analyses were considered.
Main Findings: The result revealed that ethical leadership has a positive impact on job satisfaction and the job performance. Similarly, the psychological empowerment also had a positive relationship with job satisfaction and job performance. Findings of the study also show partial mediation of Psychological empowerment in the relationship of ethical leadership and job satisfaction. Moreover, psychological empowerment fully mediates the relationship between ethical leadership and job performance.
Applications of this study: On practical grounds, our study provides guidelines for managing human resources in organizations. Employees need a good platform where they are provided with opportunities to build an interactive relationship with the supervisors which results in the progressive output for both individuals, and the performance of organizations.
Novelty/Originality of this study: Unfortunately, less importance has been given to the relationship of ethical leadership with job outcomes like performance. Few studies have explained that how and why ethical leadership is related to employee job performance. This study presents that ethical leadership affects employees by modelling and motivating them to avoid those unethical and harmful behaviours for their performance.
Keywords
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- Anser, M. K., Ali, M., Usman, M., Rana, M. L. T., & Yousaf, Z. (2021). Ethical leadership and knowledge hiding: an intervening and interactional analysis. The Service Industries Journal, 41(5-6), 307-329. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1739657 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1739657
- Bandura, A. (1986). Fearful expectations and avoidant actions as coeffects of perceived self-inefficacy. American Psychologist, 41(12), 1389–1391. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.12.1389 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.12.1389
- Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 595-616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004
- Carless, S. A. (2004). Does psychological empowerment mediate the relationship between psychological climate and job satisfaction?. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18(4), 405-425. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028444.77080.c5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028444.77080.c5
- Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of management review, 13(3), 471-482. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306983 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306983
- Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
- Deci, E. L., Connell, J. P., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Self-determination in a work organization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.580 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.580
- De Hoog, A. H. B. & Den Hartog, D. N. (2008). Ethical and despotic leadership, relationship with leader's social responsibility, top management team effectiveness and subordinates' optimism: A multi-method study. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 297–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002
- Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., Burris, E. R., & Andiappan, M. (2007). Managerial modes of influence and counterproductivity in organizations: A longitudinal business-unit-level investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 993. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.993 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.993
- Fulford, M. D., & Enz, C. A. (1995). The impact of empowerment on service employees. Journal of Managerial Issues, 161-175.
- Gecas, V. (1989). The social psychology of self-efficacy. Annual review of sociology, 15(1), 291-316. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.15.080189.001451 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.15.080189.001451
- Grojean, M. W., Resick, C. J., Dickson, M. W., & Smith, D. B. (2004). Leaders, values, and organizational climate: Examining leadership strategies for establishing an organizational climate regarding ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 55(3), 223-241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-1275-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-1275-5
- Hackman, J. R. (1980). Work redesign and motivation. Professional Psychology, 11(3), 445. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.11.3.445 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.11.3.445
- Kanter, R. M. (1983). The change masters: Binnovation and entrepreneurship in the American corporation. Touchstone Book.
- Kim, D., & Vandenberghe, C. (2020). Ethical leadership and team ethical voice and citizenship behavior in the military: The roles of team moral efficacy and ethical climate. Group & Organization Management, 45(4), 514-555. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120920050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120920050
- Koberg, C. S., Boss, R. W., Senjem, J. C., & Goodman, E. A. (1999). Antecedents and outcomes of empowerment: Empirical evidence from the health care industry. Group & Organization Management, 24(1), 71-91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601199241005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601199241005
- Kobert, J. J. (1999). Guide to High Availability: Configuring boot/root/swap. Prentice-Hall.
- Kristofâ€Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences Of Individuals' fit At Work: A Metaâ€Analysis Of Person–Job, Person–Organization, Person–Group, And Person–Supervisor Fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281-342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x
- Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Sparrowe, R. T. (2000). An examination of the mediating role of psychological empowerment on the relations between the job, interpersonal relationships, and work outcomes. Journal of applied psychology, 85(3), 407. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407
- May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11-37. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892
- Mayer, D. M., Aquino, K., Greenbaum, R. L., & Kuenzi, M. (2012). Who displays ethical leadership, and why does it matter? An examination of antecedents and consequences of ethical leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1), 151-171. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2008.0276 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2008.0276
- Mayer, D. M., Kuenzi, M., Greenbaum, R., Bardes, M., & Salvador, R. B. (2009). How low does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle-down model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.04.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.04.002
- McKenna, J., & Jeske, D. (2021). Ethical leadership and decision authority effects on nurses' engagement, exhaustion, and turnover intention. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 77(1), 198-206. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.14591 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.14591
- Naeem, R. M., Weng, Q., Hameed, Z., & Rasheed, M. I. (2020). Ethical leadership and work engagement: A moderated mediation model. Ethics & Behavior, 30(1), 63-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2019.1604232 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2019.1604232
- Neubert, M. J., Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., Roberts, J. A., & Chonko, L. B. (2009). The virtuous influence of ethical leadership behavior: Evidence from the field. Journal of Business Ethics, 90(2), 157-170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0037-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0037-9
- Piccolo, R. F., Greenbaum, R., Hartog, D. N. D., & Folger, R. (2010). The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(2â€3), 259-278. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.627 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/job.627
- Pillai, R., Schriesheim, C. A., & Williams, E. S. (1999). Fairness perceptions and trust as mediators for transformational and transactional leadership: A two-sample study. Journal of Management, 25(6), 897-933. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639902500606 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639902500606
- Quinn, R. E., & Spreitzer, G. M. (1997). The road to empowerment: Seven questions every leader should consider. Organizational Dynamics, 26(2), 37-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-2616(97)90004-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-2616(97)90004-8
- Schaubroeck, J., Lam, S. S., & Cha, S. E. (2007). Embracing transformational leadership: team values and the impact of leader behavior on team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 1020. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1020
- Seibert, S. E., Wang, G., & Courtright, S. H. (2011). Antecedents and consequences of psychological and team empowerment in organizations: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(5), 981. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022676 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022676
- Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4(4), 577-594. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.4.4.577 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.4.4.577
- Spector, R., Sivesind, C., & Kinzenbaw, D. (1986). Pantothenic acid transport through the bloodâ€brain barrier. Journal of Neurochemistry, 47(3), 966-971. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.1986.tb00705.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.1986.tb00705.x
- Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), 1442-1465. https://doi.org/10.5465/256865 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/256865
- Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R. E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L. J., Collingham, Y. C., ... & Hughes, L. (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature, 427(6970), 145. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02121 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02121
- Thomas, G. F., Tymon Jr, W. G., & Thomas, K. W. (1994). Communication apprehension, interpretive styles, preparation, and performance in oral briefing. The Journal of Business Communication (1973), 31(4), 311-326. https://doi.org/10.1177/002194369403100405 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002194369403100405
- Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An "interpretive" model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681. https://doi.org/10.5465 /amr.1990.4310926 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310926
- Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An "interpretive" model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681. https://doi.org/10.54 65/amr.1990.4310926 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310926
- Treviño, L. K., Weaver, G. R., & Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Behavioral ethics in organizations: A review. Journal of Management, 32(6), 951-990. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206306294258 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206306294258
- Vigodaâ€Gadot, E., & Talmud, I. (2010). Organizational politics and job outcomes: The moderating effect of trust and social support. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(11), 2829-2861. https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1559-1816.2010.00683.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00683.x
- Williams, L. J., & Anderson, S. E. (1991). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management, 17(3), 601-617. https://doi.org/10.11 77/014920639101700305 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700305
- Walumbwa, F. O., & Schaubroeck, J. (2009). Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. Journal of Applied psychology, 94(5), 1275. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015848 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015848
- Walumbwa, F. O., Mayer, D. M., Wang, P., Wang, H., Workman, K., & Christensen, A. L. (2011). Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader–member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(2), 204-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.11.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.11.002
- Yamane, T. (1967). Elementary sampling theory. Englewood Cliffs.
References
Anser, M. K., Ali, M., Usman, M., Rana, M. L. T., & Yousaf, Z. (2021). Ethical leadership and knowledge hiding: an intervening and interactional analysis. The Service Industries Journal, 41(5-6), 307-329. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1739657 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1739657
Bandura, A. (1986). Fearful expectations and avoidant actions as coeffects of perceived self-inefficacy. American Psychologist, 41(12), 1389–1391. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.12.1389 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.12.1389
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 595-616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004
Carless, S. A. (2004). Does psychological empowerment mediate the relationship between psychological climate and job satisfaction?. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18(4), 405-425. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028444.77080.c5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028444.77080.c5
Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of management review, 13(3), 471-482. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306983 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306983
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Deci, E. L., Connell, J. P., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Self-determination in a work organization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.580 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.580
De Hoog, A. H. B. & Den Hartog, D. N. (2008). Ethical and despotic leadership, relationship with leader's social responsibility, top management team effectiveness and subordinates' optimism: A multi-method study. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 297–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002
Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., Burris, E. R., & Andiappan, M. (2007). Managerial modes of influence and counterproductivity in organizations: A longitudinal business-unit-level investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 993. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.993 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.993
Fulford, M. D., & Enz, C. A. (1995). The impact of empowerment on service employees. Journal of Managerial Issues, 161-175.
Gecas, V. (1989). The social psychology of self-efficacy. Annual review of sociology, 15(1), 291-316. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.15.080189.001451 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.15.080189.001451
Grojean, M. W., Resick, C. J., Dickson, M. W., & Smith, D. B. (2004). Leaders, values, and organizational climate: Examining leadership strategies for establishing an organizational climate regarding ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 55(3), 223-241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-1275-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-1275-5
Hackman, J. R. (1980). Work redesign and motivation. Professional Psychology, 11(3), 445. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.11.3.445 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.11.3.445
Kanter, R. M. (1983). The change masters: Binnovation and entrepreneurship in the American corporation. Touchstone Book.
Kim, D., & Vandenberghe, C. (2020). Ethical leadership and team ethical voice and citizenship behavior in the military: The roles of team moral efficacy and ethical climate. Group & Organization Management, 45(4), 514-555. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120920050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120920050
Koberg, C. S., Boss, R. W., Senjem, J. C., & Goodman, E. A. (1999). Antecedents and outcomes of empowerment: Empirical evidence from the health care industry. Group & Organization Management, 24(1), 71-91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601199241005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601199241005
Kobert, J. J. (1999). Guide to High Availability: Configuring boot/root/swap. Prentice-Hall.
Kristofâ€Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences Of Individuals' fit At Work: A Metaâ€Analysis Of Person–Job, Person–Organization, Person–Group, And Person–Supervisor Fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281-342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Sparrowe, R. T. (2000). An examination of the mediating role of psychological empowerment on the relations between the job, interpersonal relationships, and work outcomes. Journal of applied psychology, 85(3), 407. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407
May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11-37. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892
Mayer, D. M., Aquino, K., Greenbaum, R. L., & Kuenzi, M. (2012). Who displays ethical leadership, and why does it matter? An examination of antecedents and consequences of ethical leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1), 151-171. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2008.0276 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2008.0276
Mayer, D. M., Kuenzi, M., Greenbaum, R., Bardes, M., & Salvador, R. B. (2009). How low does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle-down model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.04.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.04.002
McKenna, J., & Jeske, D. (2021). Ethical leadership and decision authority effects on nurses' engagement, exhaustion, and turnover intention. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 77(1), 198-206. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.14591 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.14591
Naeem, R. M., Weng, Q., Hameed, Z., & Rasheed, M. I. (2020). Ethical leadership and work engagement: A moderated mediation model. Ethics & Behavior, 30(1), 63-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2019.1604232 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2019.1604232
Neubert, M. J., Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., Roberts, J. A., & Chonko, L. B. (2009). The virtuous influence of ethical leadership behavior: Evidence from the field. Journal of Business Ethics, 90(2), 157-170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0037-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0037-9
Piccolo, R. F., Greenbaum, R., Hartog, D. N. D., & Folger, R. (2010). The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(2â€3), 259-278. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.627 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/job.627
Pillai, R., Schriesheim, C. A., & Williams, E. S. (1999). Fairness perceptions and trust as mediators for transformational and transactional leadership: A two-sample study. Journal of Management, 25(6), 897-933. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639902500606 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639902500606
Quinn, R. E., & Spreitzer, G. M. (1997). The road to empowerment: Seven questions every leader should consider. Organizational Dynamics, 26(2), 37-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-2616(97)90004-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-2616(97)90004-8
Schaubroeck, J., Lam, S. S., & Cha, S. E. (2007). Embracing transformational leadership: team values and the impact of leader behavior on team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 1020. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1020
Seibert, S. E., Wang, G., & Courtright, S. H. (2011). Antecedents and consequences of psychological and team empowerment in organizations: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(5), 981. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022676 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022676
Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4(4), 577-594. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.4.4.577 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.4.4.577
Spector, R., Sivesind, C., & Kinzenbaw, D. (1986). Pantothenic acid transport through the bloodâ€brain barrier. Journal of Neurochemistry, 47(3), 966-971. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.1986.tb00705.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.1986.tb00705.x
Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), 1442-1465. https://doi.org/10.5465/256865 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/256865
Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R. E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L. J., Collingham, Y. C., ... & Hughes, L. (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature, 427(6970), 145. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02121 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02121
Thomas, G. F., Tymon Jr, W. G., & Thomas, K. W. (1994). Communication apprehension, interpretive styles, preparation, and performance in oral briefing. The Journal of Business Communication (1973), 31(4), 311-326. https://doi.org/10.1177/002194369403100405 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002194369403100405
Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An "interpretive" model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681. https://doi.org/10.5465 /amr.1990.4310926 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310926
Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An "interpretive" model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681. https://doi.org/10.54 65/amr.1990.4310926 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310926
Treviño, L. K., Weaver, G. R., & Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Behavioral ethics in organizations: A review. Journal of Management, 32(6), 951-990. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206306294258 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206306294258
Vigodaâ€Gadot, E., & Talmud, I. (2010). Organizational politics and job outcomes: The moderating effect of trust and social support. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(11), 2829-2861. https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1559-1816.2010.00683.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00683.x
Williams, L. J., & Anderson, S. E. (1991). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management, 17(3), 601-617. https://doi.org/10.11 77/014920639101700305 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700305
Walumbwa, F. O., & Schaubroeck, J. (2009). Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. Journal of Applied psychology, 94(5), 1275. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015848 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015848
Walumbwa, F. O., Mayer, D. M., Wang, P., Wang, H., Workman, K., & Christensen, A. L. (2011). Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader–member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(2), 204-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.11.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.11.002
Yamane, T. (1967). Elementary sampling theory. Englewood Cliffs.