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UNDERSTANDING WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN RURAL COMMUNITIES: A CASE STUDY OF SAHIWAL DISTRICT, PUNJAB PAKISTAN
Corresponding Author(s) : Adnan Ahmad Dogar
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: The purpose of the study was to analyze the socio-cultural constraints that affect different dimensions of women empowerment in rural areas of Punjab province. Political participation and self-esteem were taken as dominant characteristics of women empowerment among lots of variables that collectively define women empowerment.
Methodology: A mixed-method approach was used to study different dimensions of women empowerment. A multi-stage random sampling technique was used to collect the data from 85 respondents excluding widows and divorced women. Two focus group discussions were conducted, one in each village to further understand the phenomenon or empowerment and constraints faced by women. The data got analyzed by using tables and graphs made in MS Excel.
Main findings: Findings of the study indicate that although cultural constraints hinder the process of women empowerment a great deal, a husband's education along with a woman's education plays a significant role in women empowerment. Results showed that if the husband is more educated, women are more empowered politically and have higher self-esteem.
Application of the study: The significant contribution of a single factor in overall women empowerment is very interesting and needs further in-depth studies on different locations. The results can contribute to policy formulation for women empowerment on a larger scale.
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- Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I., & Sulaiman, M. J. A. E. J. A. E. (2020). Women's empowerment in action: evidence from a randomized control trial in Africa. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 12(1), 210-259. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170416 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170416
- Bradshaw, S. (2013). Women’s decision-making in rural and urban households in Nicaragua: the influence of income and ideology. Environment Urbanization, 25(1), 81-94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247813477361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247813477361
- Buvinic, M., O’Donnell, M., Knowles, J., & Bourgault, S. (2020). Measuring women’s economic empowerment. A compendium of selected tools. Center for Global Development.
- Caldwell, J. C. (2007). Demographic Transition Theory. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4498-4
- Center of Gender Policy Studies. (2016). Women's Economic Participation and Empowerment in Pakistan: Status Report 2016. UN Women Pakistan.
- Chen, M., & Mahmud, S. (1995). Assessing Change in Women’s Lives: a Conceptual Framework. Bangladesh: BRAC-ICDDR,B Joint Research Project Dhaka.
- Cornwall, A., & Anyidoho, N. A. (2010). Introduction: Women's empowerment: Contentions and contestations. Development, 53(2), 144-149. https://doi.org/10.1057/dev.2010.34 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/dev.2010.34
- Denney, J. M. (2015). Brief 11: Gender and the Sustainable Development Goals: Moving Beyond Women as a" Quick Fix" for Development. Boston: University of Massachusetts.
- Dineen, K., & Le, Q. V. (2015). The impact of an integrated microcredit program on the empowerment of women and gender equality in rural Vietnam. The Journal of Developing Areas, 49(1), 23-38. https://doi.org/10. 1353/jda.2015.0028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2015.0028
- Duflo, E. (2012). Women Empowerment and Economic Development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(4), 1051–1079. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.4.1051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.4.1051
- Friedman, J., & Schady, N. (2009). How many more infants are likely to die in Africa as a result of the global financial crisis? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper(5023). https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5023
- Furuta, M., & Salway, S. (2006). Women's position within the household as a determinant of maternal health care use in Nepal. International family planning perspectives, 32(1), 17-27. https://doi.org/10.1363/3201706 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1363/3201706
- Gupta, K., & Yesudian, P. P. (2006). Evidence of women’s empowerment in India: A study of socio-spatial disparities. GeoJournal, 65(4), 365-380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-006-7556-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-006-7556-z
- Hirji, F. (2021). Claiming our Space: Muslim Women, Activism, and Social Media. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 6(1), 78-92. https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.6.1.0078 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.6.1.0078
- James-Hawkins, L., Peters, C., VanderEnde, K., Bardin, L., & Yount, K. M. (2018). Women’s agency and its relationship to current contraceptive use in lower-and middle-income countries: A systematic review of the literature. Global Public Health, 13(7), 843-858. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2016.1239270 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2016.1239270
- Javed, S. A. (2021). Strategic Directions For Pakistan’s Agenda For Smes. Sustainable Development Policy Institute. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep30581
- Jayachandran, S. (2015). The roots of gender inequality in developing countries. The Annual Review of Economics, 7(1), 63-88. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115404 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115404
- Kabeer, N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women's empowerment. Development Change, 30(3), 435-464. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125
- Khan, R. E. A., & Noreen, S. (2012). Microfinance and women empowerment: A case study of District Bahawalpur (Pakistan). African Journal of Business Management, 6(12), 4514-4521. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM11.2407 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM11.2407
- Khan, U. M., Ijaz, R. H., & Saadat, S. (2021). Extending Constitutional Rights to Pakistan’s Tribal Areas. Washington DC: US Institute of Peace.
- Lépine, A., & Strobl, E. (2013). The effect of women’s bargaining power on child nutrition in rural Senegal. World Development, 45, 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.12.018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.12.018
- Mahmud, S., Shah, N. M., & Becker, S. (2012). Measurement of women’s empowerment in rural Bangladesh. World Development, 40(3), 610-619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.08.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.08.003
- Malhotra, A., & Schuler, S. R. (2005). Women’s empowerment as a variable in international development. Measuring Empowerment: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives, 1(1), 71-88.
- Malhotra, C., Malhotra, R., Østbye, T., & Subramanian, S. (2014). Maternal autonomy and child health care utilization in India: results from the national family health survey. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 26(4), 401-413. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539511420418 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539511420418
- Mustafa, G., Rizov, M., & Kernohan, D. (2017). Growth, human development, and trade: The Asian experience. Economic Modelling, 61, 93-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.007
- O’Donnell, Buvinic. Mayra, Kenny. Charles, Bourgault. Shelby, & George, Y. (2021). Promoting Women’s Economic Empowerment in the COVID-19 Context. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep30886.7
- Rehman, H., Moazzam, D. A., & Ansari, N. (2020). Role of microfinance institutions in women empowerment: A case study of Akhuwat, Pakistan. South Asian Studies, 30(1), 107-125.
- Roy, K., & Tisdell, C. (2002). Property rights in women's empowerment in rural India: a review. International Journal of Social Economics, 29(4), 315-334. https://doi.org/10.1108/03068290210419870 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/03068290210419870
- Solomon, A. V., & Adekoya, A. E. (2006). Women and Power Transformation in Rural Households: A Case Study of Osun State, Nigeria. The Social Sciences, 1(3), 231-234.
- Stromquist, N. P. (2015). Women's E mpowerment and E ducation: linking knowledge to transformative action. European Journal of Education, 50(3), 307-324. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12137 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12137
- UN Women. (2018-2019). United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.
References
Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I., & Sulaiman, M. J. A. E. J. A. E. (2020). Women's empowerment in action: evidence from a randomized control trial in Africa. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 12(1), 210-259. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170416 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170416
Bradshaw, S. (2013). Women’s decision-making in rural and urban households in Nicaragua: the influence of income and ideology. Environment Urbanization, 25(1), 81-94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247813477361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247813477361
Buvinic, M., O’Donnell, M., Knowles, J., & Bourgault, S. (2020). Measuring women’s economic empowerment. A compendium of selected tools. Center for Global Development.
Caldwell, J. C. (2007). Demographic Transition Theory. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4498-4
Center of Gender Policy Studies. (2016). Women's Economic Participation and Empowerment in Pakistan: Status Report 2016. UN Women Pakistan.
Chen, M., & Mahmud, S. (1995). Assessing Change in Women’s Lives: a Conceptual Framework. Bangladesh: BRAC-ICDDR,B Joint Research Project Dhaka.
Cornwall, A., & Anyidoho, N. A. (2010). Introduction: Women's empowerment: Contentions and contestations. Development, 53(2), 144-149. https://doi.org/10.1057/dev.2010.34 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/dev.2010.34
Denney, J. M. (2015). Brief 11: Gender and the Sustainable Development Goals: Moving Beyond Women as a" Quick Fix" for Development. Boston: University of Massachusetts.
Dineen, K., & Le, Q. V. (2015). The impact of an integrated microcredit program on the empowerment of women and gender equality in rural Vietnam. The Journal of Developing Areas, 49(1), 23-38. https://doi.org/10. 1353/jda.2015.0028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2015.0028
Duflo, E. (2012). Women Empowerment and Economic Development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(4), 1051–1079. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.4.1051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.4.1051
Friedman, J., & Schady, N. (2009). How many more infants are likely to die in Africa as a result of the global financial crisis? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper(5023). https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5023
Furuta, M., & Salway, S. (2006). Women's position within the household as a determinant of maternal health care use in Nepal. International family planning perspectives, 32(1), 17-27. https://doi.org/10.1363/3201706 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1363/3201706
Gupta, K., & Yesudian, P. P. (2006). Evidence of women’s empowerment in India: A study of socio-spatial disparities. GeoJournal, 65(4), 365-380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-006-7556-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-006-7556-z
Hirji, F. (2021). Claiming our Space: Muslim Women, Activism, and Social Media. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 6(1), 78-92. https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.6.1.0078 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.6.1.0078
James-Hawkins, L., Peters, C., VanderEnde, K., Bardin, L., & Yount, K. M. (2018). Women’s agency and its relationship to current contraceptive use in lower-and middle-income countries: A systematic review of the literature. Global Public Health, 13(7), 843-858. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2016.1239270 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2016.1239270
Javed, S. A. (2021). Strategic Directions For Pakistan’s Agenda For Smes. Sustainable Development Policy Institute. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep30581
Jayachandran, S. (2015). The roots of gender inequality in developing countries. The Annual Review of Economics, 7(1), 63-88. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115404 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115404
Kabeer, N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women's empowerment. Development Change, 30(3), 435-464. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125
Khan, R. E. A., & Noreen, S. (2012). Microfinance and women empowerment: A case study of District Bahawalpur (Pakistan). African Journal of Business Management, 6(12), 4514-4521. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM11.2407 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM11.2407
Khan, U. M., Ijaz, R. H., & Saadat, S. (2021). Extending Constitutional Rights to Pakistan’s Tribal Areas. Washington DC: US Institute of Peace.
Lépine, A., & Strobl, E. (2013). The effect of women’s bargaining power on child nutrition in rural Senegal. World Development, 45, 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.12.018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.12.018
Mahmud, S., Shah, N. M., & Becker, S. (2012). Measurement of women’s empowerment in rural Bangladesh. World Development, 40(3), 610-619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.08.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.08.003
Malhotra, A., & Schuler, S. R. (2005). Women’s empowerment as a variable in international development. Measuring Empowerment: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives, 1(1), 71-88.
Malhotra, C., Malhotra, R., Østbye, T., & Subramanian, S. (2014). Maternal autonomy and child health care utilization in India: results from the national family health survey. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 26(4), 401-413. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539511420418 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539511420418
Mustafa, G., Rizov, M., & Kernohan, D. (2017). Growth, human development, and trade: The Asian experience. Economic Modelling, 61, 93-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.007
O’Donnell, Buvinic. Mayra, Kenny. Charles, Bourgault. Shelby, & George, Y. (2021). Promoting Women’s Economic Empowerment in the COVID-19 Context. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep30886.7
Rehman, H., Moazzam, D. A., & Ansari, N. (2020). Role of microfinance institutions in women empowerment: A case study of Akhuwat, Pakistan. South Asian Studies, 30(1), 107-125.
Roy, K., & Tisdell, C. (2002). Property rights in women's empowerment in rural India: a review. International Journal of Social Economics, 29(4), 315-334. https://doi.org/10.1108/03068290210419870 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/03068290210419870
Solomon, A. V., & Adekoya, A. E. (2006). Women and Power Transformation in Rural Households: A Case Study of Osun State, Nigeria. The Social Sciences, 1(3), 231-234.
Stromquist, N. P. (2015). Women's E mpowerment and E ducation: linking knowledge to transformative action. European Journal of Education, 50(3), 307-324. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12137 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12137
UN Women. (2018-2019). United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.