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DEPENDENT-INDEPENDENT LEARNER: EXPERIENCES OF A NOVICE INDEPENDENT LEARNER DURING AN MA STUDY IN A UK UNIVERSITY
Corresponding Author(s) : Waqar Ahmad
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This paper reveals the feelings and experiences of the researcher regarding the transition from a familiar to an unfamiliar context and understanding the concept of 'independent learners and 'independent learning' throughout a one-year MA in the University of Southampton, UK.
Methodology: Written in the form of a narrative by employing a diary, this article presents a brief account (a snapshot) of the researcher’s journey, which includes the struggles, gains, and losses during survival as a novice independent learner who had come from a completely different culture and educational setting.
Main findings: The study concludes that training (guiding and facilitating) novice independent learners and developing their metacognitive awareness about ‘independent learning’ might help in empowering and producing efficient independent learners.
Applications of this study: The paper proposes some useful suggestions for the teachers and educators in learner training, based on and limited to the researcher’s observations and experiences.
Novelty/Originality of this study: Based on the theory regarding meta-cognitive awareness and discussing it as a vital part of learner training and the significant role that it plays in dealing with the challenges of independent learning,
Keywords
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- Bailey, K.M. (1990). The use of diary studies in teacher education programs. In Richards, J.C., Nunan, D. (Eds.), Second Language Teacher Education (pp. 215-226). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Benson, P. & P. Voller (Eds.)(1997). Autonomy and independence in language learning. London: Longman.
- Benson, P. (2006). Autonomy in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching, 40, 21- 40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444806003958 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444806003958
- Benson, B. & P. Voller (Eds.) (2013). Autonomy and independence in language learning. Harlow, Essex: Longman. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842172
- Butler, D. L. & Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65, 245–282. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543065003245 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543065003245
- Ciardiello, A. V. (1998). Did you ask a good question today? Alternative cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 42, 210–219.
- Delclos, V. R. & Harrington, C. (1991). Effects of strategy monitoring and proactive instruction on children’s problem-solving performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.83.1.35 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.83.1.35
- Dickinson, L. (1993). Talking shop: Aspects of autonomous learning. An interview with Leslie Dickinson. ELT Journal, 47(4), 330-336. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/47.4.330 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/47.4.330
- Garner, R. (1987). Metacognition and Reading Comprehension. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing
- Grow, G. O. (1991). Teaching Learners to Be Self-Directed. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(3), 125-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001848191041003001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0001848191041003001
- Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., & Graesser, A. C. (1998). Metacognition in educational theory and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410602350 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410602350
- Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
- Joseph, N. (2009). Metacognition Needed: Teaching Middle and High School Students to Develop Strategic Learning Skills, Preventing School Failure. Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 54(2), 99-103. https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880903217770 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880903217770
- Kuhn, D., Schauble, L. & Garcia-Mila, M. (1992). Cross-domain development of scientiï¬c reasoning. Cognition and Instruction, 9, 285–327. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0904_1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0904_1
- Lambert, M. A. (2000). Using cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies in the classroom. Preventing School Failure, 44, 81–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880009599788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880009599788
- Lee, I. (1998). Supporting greater autonomy in language learning. ELT Journal, 52(4). https://doi.org/10.1 093/elt/52.4.282 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/52.4.282
- Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues, and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
- Little, D. (1995). Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy. System, 23(2), 175-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(95)00006-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(95)00006-6
- Little, D. (2003). Learner autonomy and second/foreign language learning. In The Guide to Good Practice for learning and teaching in languages, Linguistics and Area studies. LTSN Subject Centre for Languages, Linguistics and Area Studies, University of Southampton.
- Lifford, J., Byron, B. E., & Ziemian, J. (2000). Reading, responding, and reflecting. English Journal, 89, 46–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/821984 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/821984
- McDonough, J. (1994). A teacher looks at teachers' diaries. ELT Journal, 48, 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1 093/elt/48.1.57 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/48.1.57
- Nancy, J. (2009). Metacognition Needed: Teaching Middle and High School Students to Develop Strategic Learning Skills. ERIC.
- Nunan, D. (1992). Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Nunan, D. (1996). Towards autonomous learning: some theoretical, empirical, and practical issues. In Pemberton, R. et al. (Eds.), Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning (pp. 13-26). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
- Nunan, D. (1996). Learner strategy training in the classroom: an action research study. TESOL Journal, 6, 35–41.
- Nunan, D. (1997). Designing and Adapting Materials to Encourage Learner Autonomy. In Benson, B. & Voller, P. (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning. Harlow, Essex: Longman
- Paris, S. G. & Paris, A. H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist. 36, 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3602_4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3602_4
- Penticoff, J. (2002). A personal journey through the mosaic of thought. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 45, 634–639.
- Powell, E. (2005). Conceptualising and facilitating active learning: teachers’ videoâ€stimulated reflective dialogues, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 6(3), 407-418. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940500220202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940500220202
- Rogers, C. (1993). The interpersonal relationship in the facilitation of learning. In M. Thorpe, R. Edwards & A. Hanson (Eds.), Culture and processes of adult learning: a reader. London: Routledge.
- Schoenbach, R., Braunger, J., Greenleaf, C., & Litman, C. (2003). Apprenticing adolescents to reading in subject-area classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 85, 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170308500208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170308500208
- Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science 26, 113–125. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003044231033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003044231033
- Schraw, G. (2009). A conceptual analysis of five measures of metacognitive monitoring. Metacognition and Learning, 4(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9031-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9031-3
- Schraw, G. & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 460–475. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033
- Schraw, G. & Moshman, D. (1995). Metacognitive theories. Educational Psychological Review, 7, 351–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02212307 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02212307
- Spiro, J., Henderson, J. & Clifford, V. (2012). Independent Learning Crossing Cultures: Learning Cultures and Shifting Meanings. A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 42(4), 607-619. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2012.663607 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2012.663607
- Taylor, J. H. (2001). Self-directed learning: views of teachers and students. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 36(4), 496–504. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.02001.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.02001.x
- Teaching Expertise (2004). Developing independent learning skills. [Online] Available: http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/developing-independent-learning-skills-719
- Toogood, S. (2005). Taking control or jumping through hoops: Issues with SALL in mainstream courses. Proceedings for the independent learning conference 2005.
- Vacca, R. T. (2002). From efficient decoders to strategic readers. Educational Leadership, 60(3), 6–11.
- Wenden, A. & Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. Cambridge: Prentice-Hall International, Ltd.
- Williams, W. M., Blythe, T., White, N., Li, J., Gardner, H., & Sternberg, R. J. (2002). Practical intelligence for school: Developing metacognitive sources of achievement in adolescence. Developmental Review, 22,162–210. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.2002.0544 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.2002.0544
References
Bailey, K.M. (1990). The use of diary studies in teacher education programs. In Richards, J.C., Nunan, D. (Eds.), Second Language Teacher Education (pp. 215-226). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Benson, P. & P. Voller (Eds.)(1997). Autonomy and independence in language learning. London: Longman.
Benson, P. (2006). Autonomy in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching, 40, 21- 40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444806003958 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444806003958
Benson, B. & P. Voller (Eds.) (2013). Autonomy and independence in language learning. Harlow, Essex: Longman. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842172
Butler, D. L. & Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65, 245–282. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543065003245 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543065003245
Ciardiello, A. V. (1998). Did you ask a good question today? Alternative cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 42, 210–219.
Delclos, V. R. & Harrington, C. (1991). Effects of strategy monitoring and proactive instruction on children’s problem-solving performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.83.1.35 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.83.1.35
Dickinson, L. (1993). Talking shop: Aspects of autonomous learning. An interview with Leslie Dickinson. ELT Journal, 47(4), 330-336. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/47.4.330 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/47.4.330
Garner, R. (1987). Metacognition and Reading Comprehension. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing
Grow, G. O. (1991). Teaching Learners to Be Self-Directed. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(3), 125-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001848191041003001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0001848191041003001
Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., & Graesser, A. C. (1998). Metacognition in educational theory and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410602350 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410602350
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Joseph, N. (2009). Metacognition Needed: Teaching Middle and High School Students to Develop Strategic Learning Skills, Preventing School Failure. Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 54(2), 99-103. https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880903217770 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880903217770
Kuhn, D., Schauble, L. & Garcia-Mila, M. (1992). Cross-domain development of scientiï¬c reasoning. Cognition and Instruction, 9, 285–327. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0904_1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0904_1
Lambert, M. A. (2000). Using cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies in the classroom. Preventing School Failure, 44, 81–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880009599788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880009599788
Lee, I. (1998). Supporting greater autonomy in language learning. ELT Journal, 52(4). https://doi.org/10.1 093/elt/52.4.282 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/52.4.282
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues, and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Little, D. (1995). Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy. System, 23(2), 175-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(95)00006-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(95)00006-6
Little, D. (2003). Learner autonomy and second/foreign language learning. In The Guide to Good Practice for learning and teaching in languages, Linguistics and Area studies. LTSN Subject Centre for Languages, Linguistics and Area Studies, University of Southampton.
Lifford, J., Byron, B. E., & Ziemian, J. (2000). Reading, responding, and reflecting. English Journal, 89, 46–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/821984 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/821984
McDonough, J. (1994). A teacher looks at teachers' diaries. ELT Journal, 48, 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1 093/elt/48.1.57 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/48.1.57
Nancy, J. (2009). Metacognition Needed: Teaching Middle and High School Students to Develop Strategic Learning Skills. ERIC.
Nunan, D. (1992). Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (1996). Towards autonomous learning: some theoretical, empirical, and practical issues. In Pemberton, R. et al. (Eds.), Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning (pp. 13-26). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Nunan, D. (1996). Learner strategy training in the classroom: an action research study. TESOL Journal, 6, 35–41.
Nunan, D. (1997). Designing and Adapting Materials to Encourage Learner Autonomy. In Benson, B. & Voller, P. (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning. Harlow, Essex: Longman
Paris, S. G. & Paris, A. H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist. 36, 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3602_4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3602_4
Penticoff, J. (2002). A personal journey through the mosaic of thought. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 45, 634–639.
Powell, E. (2005). Conceptualising and facilitating active learning: teachers’ videoâ€stimulated reflective dialogues, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 6(3), 407-418. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940500220202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940500220202
Rogers, C. (1993). The interpersonal relationship in the facilitation of learning. In M. Thorpe, R. Edwards & A. Hanson (Eds.), Culture and processes of adult learning: a reader. London: Routledge.
Schoenbach, R., Braunger, J., Greenleaf, C., & Litman, C. (2003). Apprenticing adolescents to reading in subject-area classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 85, 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170308500208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170308500208
Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science 26, 113–125. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003044231033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003044231033
Schraw, G. (2009). A conceptual analysis of five measures of metacognitive monitoring. Metacognition and Learning, 4(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9031-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9031-3
Schraw, G. & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 460–475. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033
Schraw, G. & Moshman, D. (1995). Metacognitive theories. Educational Psychological Review, 7, 351–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02212307 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02212307
Spiro, J., Henderson, J. & Clifford, V. (2012). Independent Learning Crossing Cultures: Learning Cultures and Shifting Meanings. A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 42(4), 607-619. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2012.663607 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2012.663607
Taylor, J. H. (2001). Self-directed learning: views of teachers and students. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 36(4), 496–504. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.02001.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.02001.x
Teaching Expertise (2004). Developing independent learning skills. [Online] Available: http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/developing-independent-learning-skills-719
Toogood, S. (2005). Taking control or jumping through hoops: Issues with SALL in mainstream courses. Proceedings for the independent learning conference 2005.
Vacca, R. T. (2002). From efficient decoders to strategic readers. Educational Leadership, 60(3), 6–11.
Wenden, A. & Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. Cambridge: Prentice-Hall International, Ltd.
Williams, W. M., Blythe, T., White, N., Li, J., Gardner, H., & Sternberg, R. J. (2002). Practical intelligence for school: Developing metacognitive sources of achievement in adolescence. Developmental Review, 22,162–210. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.2002.0544 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.2002.0544