Authors retain the copyright without restrictions for their published content in this journal. HSSR is a SHERPA ROMEO Green Journal.
Publishing License
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTRUSIVE COGNITIONS AND DEFENSE MECHANISMS IN HEALTHY AND CLINICAL POPULATIONS
Corresponding Author(s) : Eid G. Abo Hamza
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 8 No. 1 (2020): January
Abstract
Purpose: to examine the relationship between defense mechanisms and intrusive cognitions in normal healthy individuals and psychiatric patients.
Methodology: The study sample consists of a healthy group (n=60; 30 males & 30 females), whereas the clinical group (n=66; 34 males, 32 females) includes patients with major depressive disorder (12 patients, 5 males, 7 females), schizophrenia (31 patients; 14 males, 17 females), obsessive-compulsive disorder (23 patients; 15 males, 8 females). We used several scales to measure the following variables: intrusive cognitions, intrusive memories, and defense mechanisms.
Finding: The results show that there is a positive correlation between defense mechanisms and intrusive cognitions in healthy and clinical groups. Intrusive cognitions were more common in the patient than in a healthy group. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between males and females in measures of intrusive thoughts and memories in both groups.
Implications: These findings have implications for behavioral treatment. Treatments used for managing posttraumatic stress disorder can also be used for the treatment of a major depressive disorder, OCD, and schizophrenia.
Originality: This investigation the relationship between intrusive cognitions and defense mechanisms in healthy and clinical populations and its implication on the cue exposure therapy that can be the treatment of intrusive cognitions and thoughts in with major depressive disorder, OCD, and schizophrenia.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Abo Hamza, E., Elsantil, Y. G., Moustafa, A. A., & Abdelhadi, M. (2019). The prevalence of PTSD and depression among Gaza children. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 7(6), 464 - 469. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.7671 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.7671
- Abramowitz, J. S., Whiteside, S., Kalsy, S. A.,& Tolin, D. F. (2003). Thought control strategies in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A replication and extension. Behavior Research and Therapy, 41, 529–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00026-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00026-8
- Allsopp, M., & Williams, T. (1996). Intrusive thoughts in a non-clinica adolescent population. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5, 25-32.
- Anastasides, N., Beck, K. D., Pang, K. C., Servatius, R. J., Gilbertson, M. W., Orr, S. P., & Myers, C. E. (2015). Increased generalization of learned associations is related to re-experiencing symptoms in veterans with symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Stress, 18(4), 484-489. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2015.1053450 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2015.1053450
- Assari, S., & Lankarani, M. M. (2016). Stressful Life Events and Risk of Depression 25 Years Later: Race and Gender Differences. Front Public Health, 4, 49. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2016.00049 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2016.00049
- Brooks, H., Kichuk, S. A., Adams, T. G., Koller, W. N., Eken, H. N., Rance, M., . . . Hampson, M. (2018). Developing image sets for inducing obsessive-compulsive checking symptoms. Psychiatry Res, 265, 249-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.04.035 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.04.035
- Bywaters, M., Andrade, J., & Turpin, G. (2004). Intrusive and non-intrusive memories in a non- clinical sample: The effects of mood and effect on imagery vividness. Memory, 12(4), 467-478. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210444000089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210444000089
- Clark, D. A. (1997). Process characteristics of worry and obsessive intrusive thoughts. Behavior Research and Therapy, 35, 1139–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(97)80008-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(97)80008-3
- Clark, D. A. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for OCD. New York: Guilford Press.
- Clark, D. A., & de Silva, P. (1985). The nature of depressive and anxious, intrusive thoughts: Distinct or uniform phenomena? Behavior Research and Therapy, 23, 383–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(85)90166-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(85)90166-4
- Clark, D. A., & Purdon, C. L. (1995). The assessment of unwanted intrusive thoughts: A review and critique of the literature. Behavior Research and Therapy, 33, 967–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00030-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00030-2
- Clark, D. A., & Rhyno, S. (2005). Unwanted intrusive thoughts in nonclinical individuals: Implications for clinical disorders. In D.A. Clark (Ed.), Intrusive thoughts in clinical disorders: Theory, research, and treatment (1−29). New York: The Guilford Press.
- Clark, I. A., & Mackay, C. E. (2015). Mental Imagery and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Neuroimaging and Experimental Psychopathology Approach to Intrusive Memories of Trauma. Front Psychiatry, 6, 104. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00104
- Davey, G. C. L., & Levy, S. (1998). Catastrophic worrying: Personal inadequacy and a preservative iterative style as features of the catastrophizing process. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 576–586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.576 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.576
- de Silva, P., & Marks, M. (1999). The role of traumatic experiences in the genesis of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37, 941–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00185-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00185-5
- Di Giuseppe, M., Ciacchini, R., Micheloni, T., Bertolucci, I., Marchi, L., & Conversano, C. (2018). Defense mechanisms in cancer patients: a systematic review. J Psychosom Res, 115, 76-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.10.016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.10.016
- Di Giuseppe, M., Gennaro, A., Lingiardi, V., & Perry, J. C. (2019). The Role of Defense Mechanisms in Emerging Personality Disorders in Clinical Adolescents. Psychiatry, 82(2), 128-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.2019.1579595 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.2019.1579595
- Ehlers, A. (2010). Understanding and Treating Unwanted Trauma Memories in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Z Psychol, 218(2), 141-145. https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409/a000021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409/a000021
- Emam, M. M., Abdelrasheed, N. S. G., & Omara, E. (2019). Negative Cognition, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, Negative Life Events and Depressive Symptoms among Adolescents in Oman. Current Psychology, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00471-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00471-y
- Freeston, M. H., Ladouceur, R., Thibodeau, N., & Gagnon, F. (1991). Cognitive intrusions in a non-clinical population. I. Response style, subjective experience, and appraisal. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 585–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(91)90008-Q DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(91)90008-Q
- Gharib, M., Golembiewski, J., Moustafa, A. A. (2017). Mental Health and Urban Design - Zoning in on PTSD. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9746-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9746-x
- Gross, R. T., & Borkovec, T. D. (1982). The effects of a cognitive intrusion manipulation on the sleep onset latency of good sleepers. Behavior Therapy, 13,112–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(82)80054-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(82)80054-3
- Hayes, J. P., Vanelzakker, M. B., & Shin, L. M. (2012). Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Front Integr Neurosci, 6, 89. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00089
- Horowitz, M. J. (1975). Intrusive and repetitive thoughts after experimental stress: A summary. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 1457–1463. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760290125015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760290125015
- Hovanesian, S., Isakov, I., Cervellione, K. L. (2009). Defense mechanisms and suicide risk in major depression. Arch Suicide Res. 13 (1): 74–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811110802572171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13811110802572171
- Iyadurai, L., Visser, R. M., Lau-Zhu, A., Porcheret, K., Horsch, A., Holmes, E. A., & James, E. L. (2019). Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application. Clin Psychol Rev, 69, 67-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.08.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.08.005
- Janeck, A. S., & Calamari, J. E. (1999). Thought suppression in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 23, 497–509. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018720404750 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018720404750
- Javanbakht, A. (2018). A Theory of Everything: Overlapping Neurobiological Mechanisms of Psychotherapies of Fear and Anxiety-Related Disorders. Front Behav Neurosci, 12, 328. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00328 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00328
- Karger, A. (2014). [Gender differences in depression]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz, 57(9), 1092-1098. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00103-014-2019-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00103-014-2019-z
- McNally, R. J. (2001). Vulnerability to anxiety disorders in adulthood. In R. E. Ingram & J. M. Price (Eds.), Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the lifespan (304–321). New York: Guilford Press.
- Moustafa, A. A. (2015). On and Off switches in the brain. Front Behav Neurosci, 9, 114. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00114 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00114
- Moustafa, A. A., Myers, C. E., & Gluck, M. A. (2009). A neurocomputational model of classical conditioning phenomena: a putative role for the hippocampal region in associative learning. Brain Res, 1276, 180-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.04.020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.04.020
- Moustafa, A. A., Sheynin, J., Myers, C. E. (2016). The role of informative and ambiguous feedback in avoidance behavior: Empirical and computational findings. Plos One. https://doi.org/10.1371/jo urnal.pone.0144083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144083
- Moustafa, A.A. (2013). Increased hippocampal volume and gene expression following cognitive behavioral therapy in PTSD. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7:747. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00747 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00747
- Moustafa, A.A., Gilbertson, M.W., Orr, S.P., Servatius, R.J. Myers, C. E. (2013). A model of amygdala-hippocampal-prefrontal interaction in fear conditioning and extinction in animals. Brain and Cognition, 81(1):29-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.005
- Myers, C.E., Moustafa, A. A., Sheynin, J., VanMeenen, K. M., Gilbertson, M. W., Orr,S. P., Beck, K. B., Pang, K. C. H., Servatius, R. J. (2013). Learning to obtain a reward, but not avoid punishment, is affected by the presence of PTSD symptoms in male veterans: Empirical data and computational model. Plos One, 8(8):e72508. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072508 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072508
- Nam, J. W., Ha, J. H., Choi, E., Park, D. H., & Ryu, S. H. (2019). Mature Defense Mechanisms Affect Successful Adjustment in Young Adulthood-Adjustment to Military Service in South Korea. Psychiatry Investig, 16(7), 484-490. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2018.11.07 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2018.11.07
- Newby, J. M., Lang, T., Werner-Seidler, A., Holmes, E., & Moulds, M. L. (2014). Alleviating distressing intrusive memories in depression: a comparison between computerized cognitive bias modification and cognitive behavioral education. Behav Res Ther, 56, 60-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.03.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.03.001
- Nonkes, L. J., de Pooter, M., & Homberg, J. R. (2012). Behavioral therapy based on distraction alleviates impaired fear extinction in male serotonin transporter knockout rats. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 37(2), 110116. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.110116 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.110116
- Ogawa, Y., Fukuhara, K., Tanaka, H., Nagata, Y., Ishimaru, D., & Nishikawa, T. (2019). Insight Into Illness and Defense Styles in Schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis, 207(10), 815-819. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001038 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001038
- Parker, G., & Brotchie, H. (2010). Gender differences in depression. Int Rev Psychiatry, 22(5), 429-436. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2010.492391 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2010.492391
- Patel, Chris R. Brewin, Jon Wheatley, Adrian Wells, Peter Fisher, Samuel (2007) Intrusive images and memories in major depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45, 2573–2580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.06.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.06.004
- Pearson, D. G., Ross, F. D. C., & Webster, V. L. (2012). The importance of context: evidence that contextual representations increase intrusive memories. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43,573-580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.07.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.07.009
- Perry, J. C. & Henry, M. (2004). Studying Defense Mechanisms in Psychotherapy using the Defense Mechanism Rating Scales Article. Advances in Psychology, 136 • https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(04)80034-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(04)80034-7
- Rachman, S. & de Silva, P. (1978). Abnormal and normal obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 16, 233-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(78)90022-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(78)90022-0
- Radell, M. L.,Myers, C. E., Sheynin, J., Moustafa, A. A. (2017). Computational models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In A. Moustafa (Ed.) Computational models of Brain and Behavior. Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119159193.ch4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119159193.ch4
- Rassin, E., Diepstraten, P., Merckelbach, H., & Muris, P. (2001). Thought–action fusion and thought suppression in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39, 757–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00051-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00051-6
- Ruuttu, T., Pelkonen, M., Holi, M. (2006). Psychometric properties of the defense style questionnaire (DSQ-40) in adolescents. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 194 (2): 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000198141.88926.2e DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000198141.88926.2e
- Saeed, F., Salehi, M., Alavi, K., Ajdarkosh, H., Kashaninasab, F., & Nasr Esfahani, F. (2019). Defense Mechanisms in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Their Relationship with Symptom Severity and Quality of Life. Middle East J Dig Dis, 11(3), 158-165. https://doi.org/10.15171/mejdd.2019.143 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15171/mejdd.2019.143
- Schank, R. C. (1999). Dynamic memory revisited. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527920 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527920
- Sheynin, J., Moustafa, A. A., Beck, K. D., Servatius, R. J., Casbolt, P.A., Haber, P., Elsayed, M., Hogarth, L. P., Myers, C. E. (2016). Exaggerated acquisition and resistance to extinction of avoidance behavior in treated heroin-dependent males. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.14m09284 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.14m09284
- Sheynin, J., Moustafa, A. A., Beck, K. D., Servatius, R. J., Myers, C. E. (2015). Testing the role of reward and punishment sensitivity in avoidance behavior: a computational modeling approach. Behavioral Brain Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.01.033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.01.033
- Sheynin, J., Shikari, S., Gluck, M.A., Moustafa, A.A., Servatius, R.J., and Myers, C. E. (2013). Enhanced avoidance learning in behaviorally-inhibited young men and women. Stress, 16(3):289-99. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2012.744391 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2012.744391
- Snyder, K. (2006). Kurt Snyder's personal experience with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull, 32(2), 209-211. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbj032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbj032
- Starr, S., & Moulds, M. L. (2006). The role of negative interpretations of intrusive memories in depression. J Affect Disord, 93(1-3), 125-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.03.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.03.001
- Thorsteinsdottir T, Hedelin M, Stranne J. et al (2013) Intrusive thoughts and quality of life among men with prostate cancer before and three months after surgery. Health Qual Life Outcomes, 11:154. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-11-154 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-11-154
- Wells, A., & Davies, M. I. (1994). The thought control questionnaire: a measure of individual differences in the control of unwanted thoughts. Behavior Research and Therapy, 32, 871–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90168-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90168-6
- Wells, A., & Morrison, A. P. (1994). Qualitative dimensions of normal worry and normal obsessions: A comparative study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 867–870. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90167-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90167-8
- Whitaker, K. L., Brewin, C. R., & Watson, M. (2008). Intrusive cognitions and anxiety in cancer patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64(5), 509–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.009
- Williams, A. D., & Moulds, M. L. (2007). An investigation of the cognitive and experiential features of intrusive memories in depression. Memory, 15, 912-920. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701508369 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701508369
- Yoshizumi, T., & Murase, S. (2007). The effect of avoidant tendencies on the intensity of intrusive memories in a community sample of college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1819–1828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.05.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.05.019
References
Abo Hamza, E., Elsantil, Y. G., Moustafa, A. A., & Abdelhadi, M. (2019). The prevalence of PTSD and depression among Gaza children. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 7(6), 464 - 469. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.7671 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.7671
Abramowitz, J. S., Whiteside, S., Kalsy, S. A.,& Tolin, D. F. (2003). Thought control strategies in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A replication and extension. Behavior Research and Therapy, 41, 529–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00026-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00026-8
Allsopp, M., & Williams, T. (1996). Intrusive thoughts in a non-clinica adolescent population. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5, 25-32.
Anastasides, N., Beck, K. D., Pang, K. C., Servatius, R. J., Gilbertson, M. W., Orr, S. P., & Myers, C. E. (2015). Increased generalization of learned associations is related to re-experiencing symptoms in veterans with symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Stress, 18(4), 484-489. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2015.1053450 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2015.1053450
Assari, S., & Lankarani, M. M. (2016). Stressful Life Events and Risk of Depression 25 Years Later: Race and Gender Differences. Front Public Health, 4, 49. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2016.00049 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2016.00049
Brooks, H., Kichuk, S. A., Adams, T. G., Koller, W. N., Eken, H. N., Rance, M., . . . Hampson, M. (2018). Developing image sets for inducing obsessive-compulsive checking symptoms. Psychiatry Res, 265, 249-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.04.035 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.04.035
Bywaters, M., Andrade, J., & Turpin, G. (2004). Intrusive and non-intrusive memories in a non- clinical sample: The effects of mood and effect on imagery vividness. Memory, 12(4), 467-478. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210444000089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210444000089
Clark, D. A. (1997). Process characteristics of worry and obsessive intrusive thoughts. Behavior Research and Therapy, 35, 1139–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(97)80008-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(97)80008-3
Clark, D. A. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for OCD. New York: Guilford Press.
Clark, D. A., & de Silva, P. (1985). The nature of depressive and anxious, intrusive thoughts: Distinct or uniform phenomena? Behavior Research and Therapy, 23, 383–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(85)90166-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(85)90166-4
Clark, D. A., & Purdon, C. L. (1995). The assessment of unwanted intrusive thoughts: A review and critique of the literature. Behavior Research and Therapy, 33, 967–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00030-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00030-2
Clark, D. A., & Rhyno, S. (2005). Unwanted intrusive thoughts in nonclinical individuals: Implications for clinical disorders. In D.A. Clark (Ed.), Intrusive thoughts in clinical disorders: Theory, research, and treatment (1−29). New York: The Guilford Press.
Clark, I. A., & Mackay, C. E. (2015). Mental Imagery and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Neuroimaging and Experimental Psychopathology Approach to Intrusive Memories of Trauma. Front Psychiatry, 6, 104. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00104
Davey, G. C. L., & Levy, S. (1998). Catastrophic worrying: Personal inadequacy and a preservative iterative style as features of the catastrophizing process. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 576–586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.576 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.576
de Silva, P., & Marks, M. (1999). The role of traumatic experiences in the genesis of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37, 941–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00185-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00185-5
Di Giuseppe, M., Ciacchini, R., Micheloni, T., Bertolucci, I., Marchi, L., & Conversano, C. (2018). Defense mechanisms in cancer patients: a systematic review. J Psychosom Res, 115, 76-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.10.016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.10.016
Di Giuseppe, M., Gennaro, A., Lingiardi, V., & Perry, J. C. (2019). The Role of Defense Mechanisms in Emerging Personality Disorders in Clinical Adolescents. Psychiatry, 82(2), 128-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.2019.1579595 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.2019.1579595
Ehlers, A. (2010). Understanding and Treating Unwanted Trauma Memories in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Z Psychol, 218(2), 141-145. https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409/a000021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409/a000021
Emam, M. M., Abdelrasheed, N. S. G., & Omara, E. (2019). Negative Cognition, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, Negative Life Events and Depressive Symptoms among Adolescents in Oman. Current Psychology, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00471-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00471-y
Freeston, M. H., Ladouceur, R., Thibodeau, N., & Gagnon, F. (1991). Cognitive intrusions in a non-clinical population. I. Response style, subjective experience, and appraisal. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 585–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(91)90008-Q DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(91)90008-Q
Gharib, M., Golembiewski, J., Moustafa, A. A. (2017). Mental Health and Urban Design - Zoning in on PTSD. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9746-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9746-x
Gross, R. T., & Borkovec, T. D. (1982). The effects of a cognitive intrusion manipulation on the sleep onset latency of good sleepers. Behavior Therapy, 13,112–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(82)80054-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(82)80054-3
Hayes, J. P., Vanelzakker, M. B., & Shin, L. M. (2012). Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Front Integr Neurosci, 6, 89. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00089
Horowitz, M. J. (1975). Intrusive and repetitive thoughts after experimental stress: A summary. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 1457–1463. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760290125015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760290125015
Hovanesian, S., Isakov, I., Cervellione, K. L. (2009). Defense mechanisms and suicide risk in major depression. Arch Suicide Res. 13 (1): 74–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811110802572171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13811110802572171
Iyadurai, L., Visser, R. M., Lau-Zhu, A., Porcheret, K., Horsch, A., Holmes, E. A., & James, E. L. (2019). Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application. Clin Psychol Rev, 69, 67-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.08.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.08.005
Janeck, A. S., & Calamari, J. E. (1999). Thought suppression in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 23, 497–509. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018720404750 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018720404750
Javanbakht, A. (2018). A Theory of Everything: Overlapping Neurobiological Mechanisms of Psychotherapies of Fear and Anxiety-Related Disorders. Front Behav Neurosci, 12, 328. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00328 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00328
Karger, A. (2014). [Gender differences in depression]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz, 57(9), 1092-1098. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00103-014-2019-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00103-014-2019-z
McNally, R. J. (2001). Vulnerability to anxiety disorders in adulthood. In R. E. Ingram & J. M. Price (Eds.), Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the lifespan (304–321). New York: Guilford Press.
Moustafa, A. A. (2015). On and Off switches in the brain. Front Behav Neurosci, 9, 114. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00114 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00114
Moustafa, A. A., Myers, C. E., & Gluck, M. A. (2009). A neurocomputational model of classical conditioning phenomena: a putative role for the hippocampal region in associative learning. Brain Res, 1276, 180-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.04.020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.04.020
Moustafa, A. A., Sheynin, J., Myers, C. E. (2016). The role of informative and ambiguous feedback in avoidance behavior: Empirical and computational findings. Plos One. https://doi.org/10.1371/jo urnal.pone.0144083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144083
Moustafa, A.A. (2013). Increased hippocampal volume and gene expression following cognitive behavioral therapy in PTSD. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7:747. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00747 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00747
Moustafa, A.A., Gilbertson, M.W., Orr, S.P., Servatius, R.J. Myers, C. E. (2013). A model of amygdala-hippocampal-prefrontal interaction in fear conditioning and extinction in animals. Brain and Cognition, 81(1):29-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.005
Myers, C.E., Moustafa, A. A., Sheynin, J., VanMeenen, K. M., Gilbertson, M. W., Orr,S. P., Beck, K. B., Pang, K. C. H., Servatius, R. J. (2013). Learning to obtain a reward, but not avoid punishment, is affected by the presence of PTSD symptoms in male veterans: Empirical data and computational model. Plos One, 8(8):e72508. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072508 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072508
Nam, J. W., Ha, J. H., Choi, E., Park, D. H., & Ryu, S. H. (2019). Mature Defense Mechanisms Affect Successful Adjustment in Young Adulthood-Adjustment to Military Service in South Korea. Psychiatry Investig, 16(7), 484-490. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2018.11.07 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2018.11.07
Newby, J. M., Lang, T., Werner-Seidler, A., Holmes, E., & Moulds, M. L. (2014). Alleviating distressing intrusive memories in depression: a comparison between computerized cognitive bias modification and cognitive behavioral education. Behav Res Ther, 56, 60-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.03.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.03.001
Nonkes, L. J., de Pooter, M., & Homberg, J. R. (2012). Behavioral therapy based on distraction alleviates impaired fear extinction in male serotonin transporter knockout rats. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 37(2), 110116. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.110116 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.110116
Ogawa, Y., Fukuhara, K., Tanaka, H., Nagata, Y., Ishimaru, D., & Nishikawa, T. (2019). Insight Into Illness and Defense Styles in Schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis, 207(10), 815-819. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001038 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001038
Parker, G., & Brotchie, H. (2010). Gender differences in depression. Int Rev Psychiatry, 22(5), 429-436. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2010.492391 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2010.492391
Patel, Chris R. Brewin, Jon Wheatley, Adrian Wells, Peter Fisher, Samuel (2007) Intrusive images and memories in major depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45, 2573–2580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.06.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.06.004
Pearson, D. G., Ross, F. D. C., & Webster, V. L. (2012). The importance of context: evidence that contextual representations increase intrusive memories. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43,573-580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.07.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.07.009
Perry, J. C. & Henry, M. (2004). Studying Defense Mechanisms in Psychotherapy using the Defense Mechanism Rating Scales Article. Advances in Psychology, 136 • https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(04)80034-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(04)80034-7
Rachman, S. & de Silva, P. (1978). Abnormal and normal obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 16, 233-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(78)90022-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(78)90022-0
Radell, M. L.,Myers, C. E., Sheynin, J., Moustafa, A. A. (2017). Computational models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In A. Moustafa (Ed.) Computational models of Brain and Behavior. Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119159193.ch4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119159193.ch4
Rassin, E., Diepstraten, P., Merckelbach, H., & Muris, P. (2001). Thought–action fusion and thought suppression in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39, 757–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00051-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00051-6
Ruuttu, T., Pelkonen, M., Holi, M. (2006). Psychometric properties of the defense style questionnaire (DSQ-40) in adolescents. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 194 (2): 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000198141.88926.2e DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000198141.88926.2e
Saeed, F., Salehi, M., Alavi, K., Ajdarkosh, H., Kashaninasab, F., & Nasr Esfahani, F. (2019). Defense Mechanisms in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Their Relationship with Symptom Severity and Quality of Life. Middle East J Dig Dis, 11(3), 158-165. https://doi.org/10.15171/mejdd.2019.143 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15171/mejdd.2019.143
Schank, R. C. (1999). Dynamic memory revisited. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527920 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527920
Sheynin, J., Moustafa, A. A., Beck, K. D., Servatius, R. J., Casbolt, P.A., Haber, P., Elsayed, M., Hogarth, L. P., Myers, C. E. (2016). Exaggerated acquisition and resistance to extinction of avoidance behavior in treated heroin-dependent males. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.14m09284 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.14m09284
Sheynin, J., Moustafa, A. A., Beck, K. D., Servatius, R. J., Myers, C. E. (2015). Testing the role of reward and punishment sensitivity in avoidance behavior: a computational modeling approach. Behavioral Brain Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.01.033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.01.033
Sheynin, J., Shikari, S., Gluck, M.A., Moustafa, A.A., Servatius, R.J., and Myers, C. E. (2013). Enhanced avoidance learning in behaviorally-inhibited young men and women. Stress, 16(3):289-99. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2012.744391 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2012.744391
Snyder, K. (2006). Kurt Snyder's personal experience with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull, 32(2), 209-211. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbj032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbj032
Starr, S., & Moulds, M. L. (2006). The role of negative interpretations of intrusive memories in depression. J Affect Disord, 93(1-3), 125-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.03.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.03.001
Thorsteinsdottir T, Hedelin M, Stranne J. et al (2013) Intrusive thoughts and quality of life among men with prostate cancer before and three months after surgery. Health Qual Life Outcomes, 11:154. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-11-154 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-11-154
Wells, A., & Davies, M. I. (1994). The thought control questionnaire: a measure of individual differences in the control of unwanted thoughts. Behavior Research and Therapy, 32, 871–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90168-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90168-6
Wells, A., & Morrison, A. P. (1994). Qualitative dimensions of normal worry and normal obsessions: A comparative study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 867–870. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90167-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90167-8
Whitaker, K. L., Brewin, C. R., & Watson, M. (2008). Intrusive cognitions and anxiety in cancer patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64(5), 509–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.009
Williams, A. D., & Moulds, M. L. (2007). An investigation of the cognitive and experiential features of intrusive memories in depression. Memory, 15, 912-920. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701508369 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701508369
Yoshizumi, T., & Murase, S. (2007). The effect of avoidant tendencies on the intensity of intrusive memories in a community sample of college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1819–1828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.05.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.05.019