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ASIAN EDUCATION FOR THE WORLD LABOR MARKET: A MALAYSIAN SURVEY OF MIGRATION PROPENSITY
Corresponding Author(s) : Erlane K Ghani
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 8 No. 2 (2020): March
Abstract
The purpose of the study: This research explores issues related to human mobility trend reflecting an increasing outflow of intellectual talents by surveying the migration propensity of future professional labours in Malaysia using small samples from selected universities having different establishment orientation and student compositions. It also surveys factors of their migration intention decisions.
Methodology: A quantitative approach utilizing a questionnaire survey distributed to final year students was adopted. A total of 193 usable responses are used in the analysis covering descriptive and mean differences across five identified dimensions of gender, race, academic performance, university type, and education financing.
Main Findings: The results indicate that 51% of the respondents have the intention of leaving the country, the majority of whom are private university students, females, Malays, studies funded by education loans, and those from the average group of academic achievement. The low economic reward was ranked first as the main factor in influencing their migration decision. Surprisingly, the worldwide application of accounting-based knowledge plays little role in students’ decision of migrating abroad, signalling students' inability to appreciate the economic consequence of mastering such knowledge and skills.
Implications: The research contributes to the public policy debate with respect to education and human mobility by providing a strong basis for a reality check on the sustainability of Malaysia’s future landscape of its professional labour market. It also feeds critical policy inputs for all stakeholders involved, particularly the employers, in providing future Malaysian professionals with a conducive, meaningful, and rewarding career to attract and retain them.
Keywords
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- Abu–Hassan, F., I, Komoo, M.N. Mohd–Noor, & A.Z. Abdullah (2017), Transformation of universities and the national blue ocean strategy: A case study of Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Journal of Sustainability Science and Management, 12(1),70–78.
- Blundell, R. & I, Preston (1996). Income, expenditure and the living standards of U.K. households. Fiscal Studies,16(3), 40–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1995.tb00226.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1995.tb00226.x
- Bulla, F.J.M. & E. Hormiga (2011). Highlyâ€skilled Colombian immigrants in Spain: Do they have to return home to start up in business? Education + Training, 53(5), 448–461. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911111147749 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911111147749
- Bullen, M.L. (1985). A theoretical and empirical investigation of job satisfaction and intended turnover in the large CPA firm. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 10(3), 287–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(85)90021-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(85)90021-2
- Carr, S.C., K. Inkson& K. Thorn (2005). From global careers to talent flow: Reinterpreting ‘brain drain. Journal of World Business, 40(1), 386–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2005.08.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2005.08.006
- Chang, D.F. (2012). College students’ perceptions of studying abroad and their readiness. Asia Pacific Education Review, 13(4), 583–591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-012-9221-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-012-9221-1
- Christie, N. (2009). Women, the public sphere, and middle–class culture. Journal of Women's History, 20(1),237–246. https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2008.0009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2008.0009
- Cuyper, N.D., E. Baillien&H.D. Witte (2009). Job insecurity, perceived employability and targets' and perpetrators' experiences of workplace bullying. Work & Stress: An International Journal of Work, Health & Organizations, 23(3), 206–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370903257578 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370903257578
- Daske, H., L. Hail, C. Leuz& R. Verdi (2008). Mandatory IFRS reporting around the world: Early evidence on the economic consequences. Journal of Accounting Research, 46(5), 1085–1142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-679X.2008.00306.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-679X.2008.00306.x
- Dean, R.A. (1988). Occupational reality shock and organizational commitment: Evidence from the accounting profession. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 13(3), 235–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(88)90002-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(88)90002-5
- Douglas, E.J. & D.A. Shepherd(2002). Self–employment as a career choice: Attitudes, entrepreneurial intentions and utility maximization. Entrepreneurial Theory and Practice, 26(3), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/104225870202600305 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/104225870202600305
- Dustmann, C. & Glitz, A. (2011). Migration and Education, in Hanushek, E.A., Machin, S. and Woessmann, L.(Ed.). Handbook of the Economics of Education, Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, NL, 327–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53444-6.00004-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53444-6.00004-3
- Fang, L., R.C.F. Sun& M. Yuen(2017). Be useful to society: Parental academic involvement in rural to urban migrant children’s education in China. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(3),361–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9491-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9491-8
- Ferris, K.R. (1977). Perceived uncertainty and job satisfaction in the accounting environment. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 2(1),23–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(77)90004-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(77)90004-6
- Gerhart, B., H.B. Minkoff&R.N. Olsen(1995). Employee compensation: Theory, practice, and evidence. Handbook of Human Resource Management, 528–547.
- Hashim, I. (2007). Independent child migration and Education in Ghana. Development and Change,38(5), 911–931. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2007.00439.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2007.00439.x
- Hearns, N., F. Devine., &T. Baum (2007). The implications of contemporary cultural diversity for the hospitality curriculum. Education + Training, 49(5), 350–363. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910710762922 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910710762922
- Henderson, R. (2005). Education, training and rural living: Young people in Ryedale. Education + Training, 47(3), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910510592239 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910510592239
- International Labour Organization (2013). Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013: A generation at risk. International Labour Office, Geneva.
- Kazemipur, A. and Halli, S. (2001). Immigrants and ‘new poverty’: The case of Canada. International Migration Review, 35(4), 1129–1156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2001.tb00055.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2001.tb00055.x
- Kinnunen, U., S. Mauno, J. Natti, J& M. Happonen, M. (2000). Organizational antecedents and outcomes of job insecurity: A longitudinal study in three organizations in Finland. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(4), 443–459. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200006)21:4<443::AID-JOB24>3.0.CO;2-N DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200006)21:4<443::AID-JOB24>3.0.CO;2-N
- Leung, M.W.H. & J.L.Waters (2013). British degrees made in Hong Kong: An enquiry into the role of space and place in transnational Education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 14(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-013-9250-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-013-9250-4
- Liu, X. &D.A. Simunic (2005). Profit sharing in an auditing oligopoly. The Accounting Review, 80(2), 677–702. https://doi.org/10.2308/accr.2005.80.2.677 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2308/accr.2005.80.2.677
- Lin, Y. & W. Kingminghae(2017). Factors that influence stay intention of Thai international students following completion of degrees in China. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-016-9465-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-016-9465-2
- Magnus, S., H. Johnny N. Katharina (2002). No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(3), 242–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.3.242 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.3.242
- Malaysia Migration Survey Report (2016). Department of Statistics Malaysia. Available athttps://www.dosm.gov.my (accessed 1 May 2018).
- Nguyen, C.H. (2013). Vietnamese international student mobility: Past and current trends. Asian Education and Development Studies, 2(2), 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1108/20463161311321411 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/20463161311321411
- O’Hanlon, C. (2010). Whose education?–The inclusion of Gypsy/Travelers: Continuing culture and tradition through the right to choose educational opportunities to support their social and economic mobility. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 40(2),239–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903546104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903546104
- Parkins, N. (2010). Push and pull factors of migration. American Review of Political Economy, 8(2),6–24.
- Pickering, S. (2001). Common sense and original deviancy: New discourses and asylum seekers in Australia. Journal of Refugee Studies, 14(2),169–186. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/14.2.169 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/14.2.169
- Pieretti, P.& B. Zou (2009). Brain drain and factor complementarity. Economic Modelling, 26(2),404–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2008.08.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2008.08.002
- Rao, N. (2010). Editorial introduction: Migration, Education and socioâ€economic mobility. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 40(2), 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903545973 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903545973
- Smith, J. & A. Sharfman (2007). The feasibility of making short–term migration estimates, Population Trends, 127(1), 21–32.
- Stamm, M.M. (2013). Migrants as ascenders: Reflections on the professional success of migrant apprentices. Education + Training, 55(2), 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911311304779 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911311304779
- Sugahara, S. & G. Boland (2009). The accounting profession as a career choice for tertiary business students in Japan–A factor analysis. Accounting Education: An International Journal, 18(3), 255–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639280701820035 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09639280701820035
- Sweeney, J.T. & J.J. Quirin(2009). Accountants as layoff survivors: A research note. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 34(6–7), 787–795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2008.04.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2008.04.005
- Thieme, S. & S. Wyss (2005). Migration patterns and remittance transfer in Nepal: A case study of Sainik Basti in Western Nepal. International Migration, 43(5),59–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2005.00342.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2005.00342.x
- Tsuda, T. (1999). The motivation to migrate: The ethnic and sociocultural constitution of the Japanese–Brazilian return–migration system. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 48(1),1–31. https://doi.org/10.1086/452444 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/452444
- Wang, L. (2016). Local adaptation of central policies: The policymaking and implementation of compulsory education for migrant children in China. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(1), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-015-9408-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-015-9408-3
- Waters, J.L. (2006). Geographies of cultural capital: Education, international migration and family strategies between Hong Kong and Canada. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 31, 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2006.00202.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2006.00202.x
- Zyl, C.V. &Villiers, C.D. (2011). Why some students choose to become chartered accountants (and others do not). Meditari Accountancy Research, 19(1/2),56–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/10222521111178637 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/10222521111178637
References
Abu–Hassan, F., I, Komoo, M.N. Mohd–Noor, & A.Z. Abdullah (2017), Transformation of universities and the national blue ocean strategy: A case study of Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Journal of Sustainability Science and Management, 12(1),70–78.
Blundell, R. & I, Preston (1996). Income, expenditure and the living standards of U.K. households. Fiscal Studies,16(3), 40–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1995.tb00226.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1995.tb00226.x
Bulla, F.J.M. & E. Hormiga (2011). Highlyâ€skilled Colombian immigrants in Spain: Do they have to return home to start up in business? Education + Training, 53(5), 448–461. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911111147749 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911111147749
Bullen, M.L. (1985). A theoretical and empirical investigation of job satisfaction and intended turnover in the large CPA firm. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 10(3), 287–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(85)90021-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(85)90021-2
Carr, S.C., K. Inkson& K. Thorn (2005). From global careers to talent flow: Reinterpreting ‘brain drain. Journal of World Business, 40(1), 386–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2005.08.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2005.08.006
Chang, D.F. (2012). College students’ perceptions of studying abroad and their readiness. Asia Pacific Education Review, 13(4), 583–591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-012-9221-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-012-9221-1
Christie, N. (2009). Women, the public sphere, and middle–class culture. Journal of Women's History, 20(1),237–246. https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2008.0009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2008.0009
Cuyper, N.D., E. Baillien&H.D. Witte (2009). Job insecurity, perceived employability and targets' and perpetrators' experiences of workplace bullying. Work & Stress: An International Journal of Work, Health & Organizations, 23(3), 206–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370903257578 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370903257578
Daske, H., L. Hail, C. Leuz& R. Verdi (2008). Mandatory IFRS reporting around the world: Early evidence on the economic consequences. Journal of Accounting Research, 46(5), 1085–1142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-679X.2008.00306.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-679X.2008.00306.x
Dean, R.A. (1988). Occupational reality shock and organizational commitment: Evidence from the accounting profession. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 13(3), 235–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(88)90002-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(88)90002-5
Douglas, E.J. & D.A. Shepherd(2002). Self–employment as a career choice: Attitudes, entrepreneurial intentions and utility maximization. Entrepreneurial Theory and Practice, 26(3), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/104225870202600305 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/104225870202600305
Dustmann, C. & Glitz, A. (2011). Migration and Education, in Hanushek, E.A., Machin, S. and Woessmann, L.(Ed.). Handbook of the Economics of Education, Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, NL, 327–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53444-6.00004-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53444-6.00004-3
Fang, L., R.C.F. Sun& M. Yuen(2017). Be useful to society: Parental academic involvement in rural to urban migrant children’s education in China. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(3),361–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9491-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9491-8
Ferris, K.R. (1977). Perceived uncertainty and job satisfaction in the accounting environment. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 2(1),23–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(77)90004-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(77)90004-6
Gerhart, B., H.B. Minkoff&R.N. Olsen(1995). Employee compensation: Theory, practice, and evidence. Handbook of Human Resource Management, 528–547.
Hashim, I. (2007). Independent child migration and Education in Ghana. Development and Change,38(5), 911–931. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2007.00439.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2007.00439.x
Hearns, N., F. Devine., &T. Baum (2007). The implications of contemporary cultural diversity for the hospitality curriculum. Education + Training, 49(5), 350–363. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910710762922 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910710762922
Henderson, R. (2005). Education, training and rural living: Young people in Ryedale. Education + Training, 47(3), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910510592239 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910510592239
International Labour Organization (2013). Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013: A generation at risk. International Labour Office, Geneva.
Kazemipur, A. and Halli, S. (2001). Immigrants and ‘new poverty’: The case of Canada. International Migration Review, 35(4), 1129–1156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2001.tb00055.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2001.tb00055.x
Kinnunen, U., S. Mauno, J. Natti, J& M. Happonen, M. (2000). Organizational antecedents and outcomes of job insecurity: A longitudinal study in three organizations in Finland. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(4), 443–459. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200006)21:4<443::AID-JOB24>3.0.CO;2-N DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200006)21:4<443::AID-JOB24>3.0.CO;2-N
Leung, M.W.H. & J.L.Waters (2013). British degrees made in Hong Kong: An enquiry into the role of space and place in transnational Education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 14(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-013-9250-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-013-9250-4
Liu, X. &D.A. Simunic (2005). Profit sharing in an auditing oligopoly. The Accounting Review, 80(2), 677–702. https://doi.org/10.2308/accr.2005.80.2.677 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2308/accr.2005.80.2.677
Lin, Y. & W. Kingminghae(2017). Factors that influence stay intention of Thai international students following completion of degrees in China. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-016-9465-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-016-9465-2
Magnus, S., H. Johnny N. Katharina (2002). No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(3), 242–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.3.242 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.3.242
Malaysia Migration Survey Report (2016). Department of Statistics Malaysia. Available athttps://www.dosm.gov.my (accessed 1 May 2018).
Nguyen, C.H. (2013). Vietnamese international student mobility: Past and current trends. Asian Education and Development Studies, 2(2), 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1108/20463161311321411 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/20463161311321411
O’Hanlon, C. (2010). Whose education?–The inclusion of Gypsy/Travelers: Continuing culture and tradition through the right to choose educational opportunities to support their social and economic mobility. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 40(2),239–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903546104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903546104
Parkins, N. (2010). Push and pull factors of migration. American Review of Political Economy, 8(2),6–24.
Pickering, S. (2001). Common sense and original deviancy: New discourses and asylum seekers in Australia. Journal of Refugee Studies, 14(2),169–186. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/14.2.169 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/14.2.169
Pieretti, P.& B. Zou (2009). Brain drain and factor complementarity. Economic Modelling, 26(2),404–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2008.08.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2008.08.002
Rao, N. (2010). Editorial introduction: Migration, Education and socioâ€economic mobility. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 40(2), 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903545973 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903545973
Smith, J. & A. Sharfman (2007). The feasibility of making short–term migration estimates, Population Trends, 127(1), 21–32.
Stamm, M.M. (2013). Migrants as ascenders: Reflections on the professional success of migrant apprentices. Education + Training, 55(2), 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911311304779 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911311304779
Sugahara, S. & G. Boland (2009). The accounting profession as a career choice for tertiary business students in Japan–A factor analysis. Accounting Education: An International Journal, 18(3), 255–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639280701820035 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09639280701820035
Sweeney, J.T. & J.J. Quirin(2009). Accountants as layoff survivors: A research note. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 34(6–7), 787–795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2008.04.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2008.04.005
Thieme, S. & S. Wyss (2005). Migration patterns and remittance transfer in Nepal: A case study of Sainik Basti in Western Nepal. International Migration, 43(5),59–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2005.00342.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2005.00342.x
Tsuda, T. (1999). The motivation to migrate: The ethnic and sociocultural constitution of the Japanese–Brazilian return–migration system. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 48(1),1–31. https://doi.org/10.1086/452444 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/452444
Wang, L. (2016). Local adaptation of central policies: The policymaking and implementation of compulsory education for migrant children in China. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(1), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-015-9408-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-015-9408-3
Waters, J.L. (2006). Geographies of cultural capital: Education, international migration and family strategies between Hong Kong and Canada. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 31, 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2006.00202.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2006.00202.x
Zyl, C.V. &Villiers, C.D. (2011). Why some students choose to become chartered accountants (and others do not). Meditari Accountancy Research, 19(1/2),56–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/10222521111178637 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/10222521111178637