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THE IMPACT OF RELIGION ON VOTING BEHAVIOR
Corresponding Author(s) : Mian Gul Said
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 2 (2021): March
Abstract
Purpose: This study investigates the influence of religion on the voting behavior of the electorates of district Buner of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the 2013 general elections. The study empirically reveals the inclination of the people while considering religion as a determinant of voting behavior.
Methodology: Data for this work has been collected through a personally administered structured questionnaire. A sample representative size of 385 respondents was selected through a multi-stage-sample-method in a survey. SPSS (Statistical package for social sciences) version 21 has been used for the determination of P-value through the Chi-Square test.
Results: This investigation contended that voters consider religion as a significant determinant of voting behavior. They also support the participation of Ulama (religious scholars) in politics. Further, the study discovered that the majority of the electorates do not keep the religious affairs of the candidate in mind while making their choices. On polling day, the role of religion does not significantly affect the preferences of the people.
Applications: Results of the study shows that religion and voting behavior are interrelated. While analyzing electoral politics and voting choices, it is pertinent to consider the religion of the electorates.
Novelty/Originality: Electorates favor the role of religion in politics, but on polling day, majority voters do not care about religion.
Keywords
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- Aden, H. I. (2015). Effect of Political Leadership on Voting Behavior in North Eastern Kenya. Master thesis, The Management University of Africa. Retrieved from http://repository.mua.ac.ke/447
- Ahmad, M. S. (2010). Electoral Politics in NWFP. 1988-1999. Doctoral dissertation, National Institute of Pakistan Studies QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, Islamabad,2010.Retrieved from http://prr.hec.gov.pk /jspui/bitstream /123456789 /1232/2/1159S.pdf
- Ahmed, I., &Ishaq, M. (2018). Manifestoes Importance in Election Campaign in 2013.
- Ahmed, M. (2012). Voting behaviour in rural and urban areas of Punjab. Journal of Political Studies, 45-56.Retrieved from http://pu.edu.pk/ images/journal /pols/Currentissuepdf/voting%20 behaviour.pdf
- Ahmad, M. (2004). Faisalabad Division keSiasat per BiradarismkayAsarat, Ph.D Thesis, Department of Political Science and International Relations, Multan,B.Z.University.p.46.
- Athar, A. (2002). Moving in the Circle, The Nation, 18th October, Lahore, Pakistan.
- Azhar, A. G. (2017). The Key to Triumphant Practices of Technology in Elections: It’s Time to Reboot Electoral Process in Pakistan.
- Bashir, U., & Khalid, I. (2019). Religion and Electoral Politics in Punjab: A Case Study of 2018 General Elections.
- Berganza, J. C. (2000). Politicians, voters and electoral processes: an overview. Investigaciones económicas, 24(3), 501-543. Retrieved from https:// www.redalyc.org /pdf/173/17324301.pdf
- BerlandKaul, A. (2013). Ethnic Politics and Urban Voting Behavior in India: Explaining Variation in Electoral Support for the Bharatiya Janata Party, 1999-2009. Retrieved from https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/14124/BerlandKaul_umd_011 E_14235
- Binder, L. (1963). Religion and Politics in Pakistan. California: University of California Press.
- Botterman, S. and Hooghe, M. (2009). The Christian Democratic Vote and Religious Belonging: The Relation between Religious Beliefs and Christian Democratic Voting and the Individual and Community Level in Belgium. 5 th General Conference of the European Consortium for Political Research, 10-12 September, https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/248076/1/26890-Botterman.pdf (Accessed 1st December, 2020)
- Brooks, Clem and Jeff Manza. (1997). The religious factor in U.S. Presidential election 1960-1992. American Journal of Sociology, 103(1), 38-81. https://doi.org/10.1086/231171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/231171
- Brug, W.V.D. Hobolt, S. B. and Vreese, C.H.D. (2009). Religion and Party Choice in Europe. West European Politics, Vol. 32, No. 6, 1266. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380903230694 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380903230694
- Buner-district-uc-wards-list-mna-mpa-seats-. (n.d.). Retrieved July 29, 2020, from https://www.politicpk.com/buner-district-uc-wards-list-mna-mpa-seats
- Converse, P. E. (1974). Some Priority Variables in Comparative Electoral Research. pp. 727–45 in Electoral Behavior: A Comparative Handbook, edited by Richard Rose. New York: Free Press.
- Dawson. Dr. C. (2002). Practical Research Methods, A User-friendly Guide to Mastering Research Techniques and Projects. Oxford: United Kingdom.
- Elcock, Howard (1976). Political Behaviour. London: Methuen & Co Ltd. pp. 217-218, 231,
- Election Commission of Pakistan. (2013). Election Report Vol:11.pp.21,439. Retrieved from www.ecp.gov.pk/frmGenericPage.aspx?PageID=3053
- Election Commission of Pakistan, (2002). Results of Provincial Assemblies 2002. https:// www.ecp.gov.pk/Documents/General%20Election%202002/Party%20Position%20A.Pdf (Accessed on 27/11/2020)
- Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved from https://www.britannica. com/topic/ election-political-science on 24 December 2020.
- Farmanullah. (2014). VOTING BEHAVIOUR IN PAKISTAN: (A Case Study of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in 2008 General Elections). Pakistan Study Centre University of Peshawar. Retrieved from http://prr.hec.gov.pk /jspui/bitstream/ 123456789/2507/1/ 3060S.pdf
- Flanigan, W. H. and Zingale, N.H. (1998). Political Behavior of the American Electorate. Edition (9), Washington DC: CQ Press.p.6.
- Fox, J (2001). Religion: An oft-overlooked element of international studies. International Studies Review 3(3),53-73. https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.00244 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.00244
- Fox, Sandie Wightman and James T. Richardson. (2001). Religion and voting on abortion reform: A follow-up study. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 14(2), 159-164. https://doi.org/10.2307/1384738 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1384738
- Franklin, C. H. (August 1984). Issue Preferences, Socialization, and the Evolution of Party Identification. American Journal of Political Science, 28(3), 459. https://doi.org/10.2307/2110900 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2110900
- Greeley, Andrew M. (2004, December). A Catholic vote. America, 191(18), 6. https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520238176.003.0016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520238176.003.0016
- Hoene, E. (2011). Asian Americans and politics: Voting behavior and political involvement. Senior thesis, Bemidji State University. Retrieved from https://www.bemidjistate.edu/academics/departments/political-science/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/2015/ 05/
- Huntington, SP (1993). The clash of civilizations? Foreign Affairs, 72 (3) Pp.22-49. https://doi.org/10.2307/20045621 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20045621
- Tanwir, F. (2002). Religious Parties and Politics in Pakistan. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 43(3–5), 250-268. https://doi.org/10.1177/002071520204300303
- Kanwal, L. S. (2016). Voting Behavior of Educated Youth in Pakistan: A Study of Multan City. Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan, 53(2).p.94,95,96. Retrieved from http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/PDF-FILES/6-Paper_53_2_16.pdf
- Khan, F. K., &Musarrat, R. (2014). Electoral Politics in Pakistan (Elections 2013): A Case Study of District Muzaffargarh. Journal of Public Administration and Governance, 4(4), 79-99. https://doi.org/10.5296/jpag.v4i4.6728 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5296/jpag.v4i4.6728
- Khan, Imdad Ali. (1986). Voting Behaviour in Rural NWFP: A Study of People’s Participation in Election. Peshawar: Pakistan Academy for Rural Development.
- Kizilbash, H. H. (1988). Anti-Americanism in Pakistan, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 497, 58-67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716288497001005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716288497001005
- Krijcie, R. &. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and psychological measurement (Vol. 30).pp.607-610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
- Laguda, D. O. (2008). Religion and politics in a pluralistic society: The Nigerian Experience. Politics and Religion Journal, 2(2), 123-133.
- Lasswell, H. (1958). Politics: Who Gets What, When, and How. New York: Meridian Press.
- Lijphart, A. (1979). Religious vs. Linguistic vs. Class Voting: The "Crucial Experiment" of Comparing Belgium, Canada, South Africa, and Switzerland. The American Political Science Review, Vol. 73, No. 2, 442-458. https://doi.org/10.2307/1954890 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1954890
- Madeley, J. (2002). Reading the Runes: The Religious Factor In Scandinavian Electoral Politics. Religion and Mass Electoral Behaviour in Europe, eds. David Broughton and Hans-Martien ten Napel, 40.
- Minority right group international. (2015). Law and legal cases. Retrieved from Minority rights group international: http://minorityrights.org/law-and-legal-cases/universal-declaration-of-human-rights-article-21/ on 20 March 2020.
- Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (n.d.). district-glance-buner. Retrieved March, 2018, from http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/district-glance-buner
- Philpott, D (2002). The challenge of September 11 to secularism in international relations. World Politics. 55, pp. 66-95. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.2003.0006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.2003.0006
- PILDAT. (2013). The first ten general elections of Pakistan. 1970 to 2013.pp.11,13,18,2 ,31,34,35,39,43. Retrieved from http:// www.PILDAT.org
- Powell, G. B. (1982). Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability and Violence. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Raymond, C. (2011). The Continued Salience of Religious Voting in the United States, Germany, and Great Britain. Electoral Studies 30, 125-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.10.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.10.001
- Shah, H. (2019). Voting Behaviour in Pakistan: An Analysis of Partisan and Floating Voters in General Elections 2013 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Doctoral dissertation, University of Peshawar, Peshawar.).
- Rose, R. & Unwin, D. (1969). Social Cohesion, Political Parties, and Strains in Regimes, Comparative Political Studies, 2, 7-67. https://doi.org/10.1177/001041406900200103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001041406900200103
- Rose, R. (1974). The Problem of Party Government. London: MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-01854-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-01854-3_15
- Tanwir, F. (2002). Religious parties and politics in Pakistan. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 43(3-5), 250-268. https://doi.org/10.1177/002071520204300303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002071520204300303
- Wald, K.D. and Brown, A.C. (2007). Religion and Politics in the United States USA: Rowman& Littlefield Publishers.
- Wilder, A.R. (2005). Elections 2002: Legitimizing the Status Quo. Pakistan on the Brink: Politics, Economics, and Society, Craig Baxter, eds. Karachi: Oxford University Press.
References
Aden, H. I. (2015). Effect of Political Leadership on Voting Behavior in North Eastern Kenya. Master thesis, The Management University of Africa. Retrieved from http://repository.mua.ac.ke/447
Ahmad, M. S. (2010). Electoral Politics in NWFP. 1988-1999. Doctoral dissertation, National Institute of Pakistan Studies QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, Islamabad,2010.Retrieved from http://prr.hec.gov.pk /jspui/bitstream /123456789 /1232/2/1159S.pdf
Ahmed, I., &Ishaq, M. (2018). Manifestoes Importance in Election Campaign in 2013.
Ahmed, M. (2012). Voting behaviour in rural and urban areas of Punjab. Journal of Political Studies, 45-56.Retrieved from http://pu.edu.pk/ images/journal /pols/Currentissuepdf/voting%20 behaviour.pdf
Ahmad, M. (2004). Faisalabad Division keSiasat per BiradarismkayAsarat, Ph.D Thesis, Department of Political Science and International Relations, Multan,B.Z.University.p.46.
Athar, A. (2002). Moving in the Circle, The Nation, 18th October, Lahore, Pakistan.
Azhar, A. G. (2017). The Key to Triumphant Practices of Technology in Elections: It’s Time to Reboot Electoral Process in Pakistan.
Bashir, U., & Khalid, I. (2019). Religion and Electoral Politics in Punjab: A Case Study of 2018 General Elections.
Berganza, J. C. (2000). Politicians, voters and electoral processes: an overview. Investigaciones económicas, 24(3), 501-543. Retrieved from https:// www.redalyc.org /pdf/173/17324301.pdf
BerlandKaul, A. (2013). Ethnic Politics and Urban Voting Behavior in India: Explaining Variation in Electoral Support for the Bharatiya Janata Party, 1999-2009. Retrieved from https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/14124/BerlandKaul_umd_011 E_14235
Binder, L. (1963). Religion and Politics in Pakistan. California: University of California Press.
Botterman, S. and Hooghe, M. (2009). The Christian Democratic Vote and Religious Belonging: The Relation between Religious Beliefs and Christian Democratic Voting and the Individual and Community Level in Belgium. 5 th General Conference of the European Consortium for Political Research, 10-12 September, https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/248076/1/26890-Botterman.pdf (Accessed 1st December, 2020)
Brooks, Clem and Jeff Manza. (1997). The religious factor in U.S. Presidential election 1960-1992. American Journal of Sociology, 103(1), 38-81. https://doi.org/10.1086/231171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/231171
Brug, W.V.D. Hobolt, S. B. and Vreese, C.H.D. (2009). Religion and Party Choice in Europe. West European Politics, Vol. 32, No. 6, 1266. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380903230694 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380903230694
Buner-district-uc-wards-list-mna-mpa-seats-. (n.d.). Retrieved July 29, 2020, from https://www.politicpk.com/buner-district-uc-wards-list-mna-mpa-seats
Converse, P. E. (1974). Some Priority Variables in Comparative Electoral Research. pp. 727–45 in Electoral Behavior: A Comparative Handbook, edited by Richard Rose. New York: Free Press.
Dawson. Dr. C. (2002). Practical Research Methods, A User-friendly Guide to Mastering Research Techniques and Projects. Oxford: United Kingdom.
Elcock, Howard (1976). Political Behaviour. London: Methuen & Co Ltd. pp. 217-218, 231,
Election Commission of Pakistan. (2013). Election Report Vol:11.pp.21,439. Retrieved from www.ecp.gov.pk/frmGenericPage.aspx?PageID=3053
Election Commission of Pakistan, (2002). Results of Provincial Assemblies 2002. https:// www.ecp.gov.pk/Documents/General%20Election%202002/Party%20Position%20A.Pdf (Accessed on 27/11/2020)
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved from https://www.britannica. com/topic/ election-political-science on 24 December 2020.
Farmanullah. (2014). VOTING BEHAVIOUR IN PAKISTAN: (A Case Study of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in 2008 General Elections). Pakistan Study Centre University of Peshawar. Retrieved from http://prr.hec.gov.pk /jspui/bitstream/ 123456789/2507/1/ 3060S.pdf
Flanigan, W. H. and Zingale, N.H. (1998). Political Behavior of the American Electorate. Edition (9), Washington DC: CQ Press.p.6.
Fox, J (2001). Religion: An oft-overlooked element of international studies. International Studies Review 3(3),53-73. https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.00244 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.00244
Fox, Sandie Wightman and James T. Richardson. (2001). Religion and voting on abortion reform: A follow-up study. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 14(2), 159-164. https://doi.org/10.2307/1384738 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1384738
Franklin, C. H. (August 1984). Issue Preferences, Socialization, and the Evolution of Party Identification. American Journal of Political Science, 28(3), 459. https://doi.org/10.2307/2110900 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2110900
Greeley, Andrew M. (2004, December). A Catholic vote. America, 191(18), 6. https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520238176.003.0016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520238176.003.0016
Hoene, E. (2011). Asian Americans and politics: Voting behavior and political involvement. Senior thesis, Bemidji State University. Retrieved from https://www.bemidjistate.edu/academics/departments/political-science/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/2015/ 05/
Huntington, SP (1993). The clash of civilizations? Foreign Affairs, 72 (3) Pp.22-49. https://doi.org/10.2307/20045621 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20045621
Tanwir, F. (2002). Religious Parties and Politics in Pakistan. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 43(3–5), 250-268. https://doi.org/10.1177/002071520204300303
Kanwal, L. S. (2016). Voting Behavior of Educated Youth in Pakistan: A Study of Multan City. Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan, 53(2).p.94,95,96. Retrieved from http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/PDF-FILES/6-Paper_53_2_16.pdf
Khan, F. K., &Musarrat, R. (2014). Electoral Politics in Pakistan (Elections 2013): A Case Study of District Muzaffargarh. Journal of Public Administration and Governance, 4(4), 79-99. https://doi.org/10.5296/jpag.v4i4.6728 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5296/jpag.v4i4.6728
Khan, Imdad Ali. (1986). Voting Behaviour in Rural NWFP: A Study of People’s Participation in Election. Peshawar: Pakistan Academy for Rural Development.
Kizilbash, H. H. (1988). Anti-Americanism in Pakistan, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 497, 58-67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716288497001005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716288497001005
Krijcie, R. &. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and psychological measurement (Vol. 30).pp.607-610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
Laguda, D. O. (2008). Religion and politics in a pluralistic society: The Nigerian Experience. Politics and Religion Journal, 2(2), 123-133.
Lasswell, H. (1958). Politics: Who Gets What, When, and How. New York: Meridian Press.
Lijphart, A. (1979). Religious vs. Linguistic vs. Class Voting: The "Crucial Experiment" of Comparing Belgium, Canada, South Africa, and Switzerland. The American Political Science Review, Vol. 73, No. 2, 442-458. https://doi.org/10.2307/1954890 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1954890
Madeley, J. (2002). Reading the Runes: The Religious Factor In Scandinavian Electoral Politics. Religion and Mass Electoral Behaviour in Europe, eds. David Broughton and Hans-Martien ten Napel, 40.
Minority right group international. (2015). Law and legal cases. Retrieved from Minority rights group international: http://minorityrights.org/law-and-legal-cases/universal-declaration-of-human-rights-article-21/ on 20 March 2020.
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (n.d.). district-glance-buner. Retrieved March, 2018, from http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/district-glance-buner
Philpott, D (2002). The challenge of September 11 to secularism in international relations. World Politics. 55, pp. 66-95. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.2003.0006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.2003.0006
PILDAT. (2013). The first ten general elections of Pakistan. 1970 to 2013.pp.11,13,18,2 ,31,34,35,39,43. Retrieved from http:// www.PILDAT.org
Powell, G. B. (1982). Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability and Violence. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Raymond, C. (2011). The Continued Salience of Religious Voting in the United States, Germany, and Great Britain. Electoral Studies 30, 125-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.10.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.10.001
Shah, H. (2019). Voting Behaviour in Pakistan: An Analysis of Partisan and Floating Voters in General Elections 2013 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Doctoral dissertation, University of Peshawar, Peshawar.).
Rose, R. & Unwin, D. (1969). Social Cohesion, Political Parties, and Strains in Regimes, Comparative Political Studies, 2, 7-67. https://doi.org/10.1177/001041406900200103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001041406900200103
Rose, R. (1974). The Problem of Party Government. London: MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-01854-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-01854-3_15
Tanwir, F. (2002). Religious parties and politics in Pakistan. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 43(3-5), 250-268. https://doi.org/10.1177/002071520204300303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002071520204300303
Wald, K.D. and Brown, A.C. (2007). Religion and Politics in the United States USA: Rowman& Littlefield Publishers.
Wilder, A.R. (2005). Elections 2002: Legitimizing the Status Quo. Pakistan on the Brink: Politics, Economics, and Society, Craig Baxter, eds. Karachi: Oxford University Press.