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THE SOCIAL VIOLENCE AND REGIME CHANGES IN INDONESIA
Corresponding Author(s) : Nurus Shalihin
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 8 No. 4 (2020): July
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This paper aims to explain social violence during the transition of three regimes in Indonesia, from the Old Order to the New Order and from the New Order to the Reformation. This paper also analyzes the motives behind the violence at each transition of the regimes.
Methodology: The research was conducted through a literature study by examining media documents, magazines, research reports, scientific articles, and books on various social violence practices in every three regimes in Indonesia.
Main Findings: The result of the study found that the social violence in Indonesia has occurred in various forms and motives. Five types of social violence have been identified, communal violence, separatist violence, state-community violence, industrial relations violence, and political violence. The social violence has used as a tool to silence the past and carry out political propaganda by elites and to gain the power by opposition. Thus, it argues that all social violence practices are constructed by various interests of the regimes and anti-regimes.
Applications of this study: This study provides a mapping of violence in every political and regime transition in Indonesia. Thus, this study can be applied for two important issues. First, this study can be used as reference in anticipating political violence in the national and regional election process in Indonesia in particular, and other countries in general. Second, for developing countries, this study can be used as reference as reference in mapping and analyzing various social violence practices that accompany the transition process.
Novelty/Originality of this study: The recent studies of violence in Indonesia covered the issues of religious, ethnic, economic and political violence. There are limited studies violence and democracy transition in Indonesia and it’s relation to political regimes. This article focuses on violence and its relationship with the political regimes and regime’s changes in Indonesia.
Keywords
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- Agbu, A. D., Mohammed, I., & Garba, M. J. (2019). Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria. Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences, 2(1), 1–12.
- Al-Qurtuby, S. (2015). Interethnic Violence, Separatism and Political Reconciliation in Turkey and Indonesia. India Quarterly, 72(2), 126–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0974928414568619 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0974928414568619
- Arendt, H. (1970). On Violence. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
- Austgard, K. (2012). Doing it the Gadamerian way – using philosophical hermeneutics as a methodological approach in nursing science. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 26(4), 829–834. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2012.00993.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2012.00993.x
- Bardall, G., Bjarnegård, E., & Piscopo, J. M. (2019). How is Political Violence Gendered? Disentangling Motives, Forms, and Impacts. Political Studies, 67(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719881812 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719881812
- Barron, P. (2019). When Violence Works: Postconflict Violence and Peace in Indonesia. Cornell University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735455
- Barron, P., Kaiser, K., & Pradhan, M. (2009). Understanding Variations in Local Conflict: Evidence and Implications from Indonesia. World Development, 37(3), 698–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.08.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.08.007
- Bhambra, G. K. (2016). Comparative Historical Sociology and the State : Problems of Method. Cultural Sociology, 10(3), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/1749975516639085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1749975516639085
- Briceño-León, R. (2006). Violence in Venezuela: Oil rent and political crisis. Ciencia e Saude Coletiva, 11(2), 315–325. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-81232006000200010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-81232006000200010
- Burke, A. (2016). New political space, old tensions: History, identity and violence in Rakhine State, Myanmar. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 38(2), 258–283. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs38-2d DOI: https://doi.org/10.1355/cs38-2d
- Chandra, S. (2017). New Findings on the Indonesian Killings of 1965–66. The Journal of Asian Studies, 76(4), 1059–1086. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002191181700081X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S002191181700081X
- Collins, E. F. (2002). Indonesia: A Violent Culture? Asian Survey, 42(4), 582–604. https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2002.42.4.582 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2002.42.4.582
- Colombijn, F., & Lindblad, J. T. (2002). Roots of Violence in Indonesia: Contemporary Violence in Historical Perspective. KITLV Indonesia.
- Cribb, R. (1991). Problems In The Historiography Of The Killings In Indonesia. In R. Cribb (Ed.), The Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali (pp. 1–44). Monash University.
- Dijk, K. van, & Dijk, C. (2001). A Country in Despair: Indonesian Between 1997 and 2000. KITLV Press Indonesia.
- Djajadi, M. I. (1999). Pengukuran Integrasi Indonesia: Perspektif Keteraturan Sosial Selama Periode 1946-1999. Universitas Indonesia.
- Foucault, M. (1977). The History of Sexsuality. Penguin Books Ltd.
- Gasiorowski, M. J. (1995). Economic Crisis and Political Regime Change: An Event History Analysis. American Political Science Review, 89(4), 882–897. https://doi.org/10.2307/2082515 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2082515
- Gatra. (1997). Di Balik Kerusuhan Tasik. No. 11 Tahun IV, 1997.
- Guevara, V. M. A. (2018). Violence and political regime in Veracruz , México: 1936-2016. Memorias: Revista Digital de ArqueologiÌa e Historia Desde El Caribe, 35, 55–78. http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/memor/n35/1794-8886-memor-35-55.pdf
- Haris, S. (1999). Indonesia di Ambang Perpecahan? Kasus Aceh, Riau, Irian Jaya, dan Timor-Timor. Erlangga-LIPI-Yayasan Politika-The Asia Fondation.
- Hasyim, A. F. (2015). Agama dan Lokalitas: Harmoni Sosial Berbasis Agama dan Kearifan Lokal di Desa Sampetan, Ampel, Boyolali Ahmad. Wahana Islamika, 1(I), 1–18.
- Herman, S. (2000). Palu Arit di Ladang Tebu; Sejarah Pembantaian Massal yang Terlupakan (Jombang-Kediri 1965-1966). Gramedia.
- Hiariej, E. (2005). Materialisme Sejarah Kejatuhan Soeharto; Pertumbuhan dan Kebangkrutan Kapitalisme Orde Baru. IRE Press.
- Hoelscher, K. (2017). Institutional Reform and Violence Reduction in Pernambuco, Brazil. Journal of Latin American Studies, 49(4), 855–884. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X17000748 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X17000748
- Holmes, J. S. (2001). Political Violence and Regime Change in Argentina: 1965-1976. Terrorism and Political Violence, 13(1), 134–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550109609673 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550109609673
- Jusuf, E. I. (2008). Kerusuhan Mei 1998; Fakta, Data dan Analisa (Mengungkap Kerusuhan Mei 1998 Sebagai Kejahatan Terhadap Kemanusiaan. Solidaritas Nusa Bangsa (SNB)& Asosiasi Penasehat Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia Indonesia (APHI).
- Kahin, G. M. T. (1995). Nasionalisme dan Revolusi Di Indonesia. Sebelas Maret University Press & Pustaka Sinar Harapan.
- Kammen, D., & Zakaria, F. (2012). Detention in Mass Violence: Policy and Practice in Indonesia, 1965-1968. Critical Asian Studies, 44(3), 441–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2012.711979 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2012.711979
- Kartodirdjo, S. (1977). Sejarah Nasional Indinesia IV. Balai Pusataka.
- Katiri, L. El, Fattouh, B., & Mallinson, R. (2014). The Arab Uprisings and MENA Political Instability : Implications for Oil & Gas Markets (Issue No. 8, March).
- Klinken, G. van. (2007). Communal Violence and Democratization in Indonesia Small Town Wars. Routledge.
- Komnas HAM. (2000). Ringkasan Eksekutif Laporan Tim Tindak Lanjut Hasil Komisi Penyelidikan dan Pemeriksaan Pelanggaran Hak Asasi Manusia di Tanjung Periuk (KP3T).
- Matsiyevsky, Y. (2018). Revolution without regime change: The evidence from the post-Euromaidan Ukraine. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 51(4), 349–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postcomstud.2018.11.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postcomstud.2018.11.001
- Maynard, J. L. (2015). Identity and Ideology in Political Violence and Conflict. St Antony’s International Review, 10(2), 18–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/26229187
- McDonnell, M. A., & Waldstreicher, D. (2017). Revolution in the Quarterly? A Historiographical Analysis. The William and Mary Quarterly, 74(4), 633–666. https://doi.org/10.5309/willmaryquar.74.4.0633 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5309/willmaryquar.74.4.0633
- Mollah, M. A. H., & Jahan, R. (2018). Parliamentary election and electoral violence in Bangladesh: the way forward. International Journal of Law and Management, 60(2), 741–756. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLMA-07-2017-0161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLMA-07-2017-0161
- Nordholt, H. S. (2002). Kriminalitas, Modernitas dan Identitas dalam Sejarah Indonesia. Pustaka Pelajar.
- Nugraha, A., & Purwanto, S. A. (2020). Neo-Ekstraktivisme Tambang Timah di Pulau Bangka. Indonesian Journal of Religion and Society, 2(1), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.36256/ijrs.v2i1.95 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36256/ijrs.v2i1.95
- O’Donnell, G. A. (1988). Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Argentina, 1966-1973, in Comparative Perspective. University of California Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520336582
- Onghokham. (1975). The Residency of Madiun; Priyayi and Peasant ini the Ninenteenth Century. Yale University.
- Østby, G. (2013). Inequality and political violence: A review of the literature. International Area Studies Review, 16(2), 206–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/2233865913490937 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2233865913490937
- Parry, R. L. (2005). In the Time of Madness: Indonesia on the Edge of Chaos. Serambi.
- Piliang, Y. A. (2005). Transpolitika Dinamika Politik di dalam Era Virtual. Jalasutra.
- Prasad, A. (2002). The Contest Over Meaning: Hermeneutics as an Interpretive. Organizational Research Methods, 5(1), 12–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428102051003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428102051003
- Roosa, J. (2008). Dalih Pembunuhan Massal; Gerakan 30 September dan Kudeta Soeharto. Institut Sejarah Sosial Indonesia & Hasta Mitra.
- Sidel, J. T. (2018). Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia. Cornell University Press.
- Sinpeng, A. (2007). Democracy from Above: Regime Transition in the Kingdom of Bhutan. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 17(2), 21–48.
- Stojanova, A. (2013). Elite- or mass-driven democratic consolidation ? Western Balkans in comparative perspective. IMT Institute for Advanced Studies, Lucca.
- Suryawan, I. N. (2010). Geneologi Kekerasan dan Pergolakan Subaltern: Bara di Bali Utara. Prenada Media Group.
- Sweijs, T., Farnham, N., Rõõs, H., Usanov, A., & Imanalieva, J. (2017). The Many Faces of Political Violence. In The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies.
- Tadie, J. (2009). Wilayah Kekerasan Di Jakarta. Masup.
- Tadjoeddin, M. Z. (2002). Anatomy of Social Violence in The Context of Transition: The Case of Indonesia, 1990-2001. Politics Administration and Change, 38, 1–35.
- Tempo. (1984). Laporan dari Iran. No. 33 Tahun XIV, 1984.
- Toer, P. A. (2003). Kronik Revolusi Indonesia (Jilid IV). Kepustakaan Populer Indonesia.
- Valentino, B. A. (2014). Why we kill: The political science of political violence against civilians. Annual Review of Political Science, 17, 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-082112-141937 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-082112-141937
- Zed, M. (2014). Metode Penelitian Kepustakaan (3rd ed.). Yayasan Obor Indonesia.
References
Agbu, A. D., Mohammed, I., & Garba, M. J. (2019). Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria. Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences, 2(1), 1–12.
Al-Qurtuby, S. (2015). Interethnic Violence, Separatism and Political Reconciliation in Turkey and Indonesia. India Quarterly, 72(2), 126–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0974928414568619 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0974928414568619
Arendt, H. (1970). On Violence. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Austgard, K. (2012). Doing it the Gadamerian way – using philosophical hermeneutics as a methodological approach in nursing science. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 26(4), 829–834. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2012.00993.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2012.00993.x
Bardall, G., Bjarnegård, E., & Piscopo, J. M. (2019). How is Political Violence Gendered? Disentangling Motives, Forms, and Impacts. Political Studies, 67(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719881812 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719881812
Barron, P. (2019). When Violence Works: Postconflict Violence and Peace in Indonesia. Cornell University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735455
Barron, P., Kaiser, K., & Pradhan, M. (2009). Understanding Variations in Local Conflict: Evidence and Implications from Indonesia. World Development, 37(3), 698–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.08.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.08.007
Bhambra, G. K. (2016). Comparative Historical Sociology and the State : Problems of Method. Cultural Sociology, 10(3), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/1749975516639085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1749975516639085
Briceño-León, R. (2006). Violence in Venezuela: Oil rent and political crisis. Ciencia e Saude Coletiva, 11(2), 315–325. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-81232006000200010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-81232006000200010
Burke, A. (2016). New political space, old tensions: History, identity and violence in Rakhine State, Myanmar. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 38(2), 258–283. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs38-2d DOI: https://doi.org/10.1355/cs38-2d
Chandra, S. (2017). New Findings on the Indonesian Killings of 1965–66. The Journal of Asian Studies, 76(4), 1059–1086. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002191181700081X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S002191181700081X
Collins, E. F. (2002). Indonesia: A Violent Culture? Asian Survey, 42(4), 582–604. https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2002.42.4.582 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2002.42.4.582
Colombijn, F., & Lindblad, J. T. (2002). Roots of Violence in Indonesia: Contemporary Violence in Historical Perspective. KITLV Indonesia.
Cribb, R. (1991). Problems In The Historiography Of The Killings In Indonesia. In R. Cribb (Ed.), The Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali (pp. 1–44). Monash University.
Dijk, K. van, & Dijk, C. (2001). A Country in Despair: Indonesian Between 1997 and 2000. KITLV Press Indonesia.
Djajadi, M. I. (1999). Pengukuran Integrasi Indonesia: Perspektif Keteraturan Sosial Selama Periode 1946-1999. Universitas Indonesia.
Foucault, M. (1977). The History of Sexsuality. Penguin Books Ltd.
Gasiorowski, M. J. (1995). Economic Crisis and Political Regime Change: An Event History Analysis. American Political Science Review, 89(4), 882–897. https://doi.org/10.2307/2082515 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2082515
Gatra. (1997). Di Balik Kerusuhan Tasik. No. 11 Tahun IV, 1997.
Guevara, V. M. A. (2018). Violence and political regime in Veracruz , México: 1936-2016. Memorias: Revista Digital de ArqueologiÌa e Historia Desde El Caribe, 35, 55–78. http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/memor/n35/1794-8886-memor-35-55.pdf
Haris, S. (1999). Indonesia di Ambang Perpecahan? Kasus Aceh, Riau, Irian Jaya, dan Timor-Timor. Erlangga-LIPI-Yayasan Politika-The Asia Fondation.
Hasyim, A. F. (2015). Agama dan Lokalitas: Harmoni Sosial Berbasis Agama dan Kearifan Lokal di Desa Sampetan, Ampel, Boyolali Ahmad. Wahana Islamika, 1(I), 1–18.
Herman, S. (2000). Palu Arit di Ladang Tebu; Sejarah Pembantaian Massal yang Terlupakan (Jombang-Kediri 1965-1966). Gramedia.
Hiariej, E. (2005). Materialisme Sejarah Kejatuhan Soeharto; Pertumbuhan dan Kebangkrutan Kapitalisme Orde Baru. IRE Press.
Hoelscher, K. (2017). Institutional Reform and Violence Reduction in Pernambuco, Brazil. Journal of Latin American Studies, 49(4), 855–884. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X17000748 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X17000748
Holmes, J. S. (2001). Political Violence and Regime Change in Argentina: 1965-1976. Terrorism and Political Violence, 13(1), 134–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550109609673 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550109609673
Jusuf, E. I. (2008). Kerusuhan Mei 1998; Fakta, Data dan Analisa (Mengungkap Kerusuhan Mei 1998 Sebagai Kejahatan Terhadap Kemanusiaan. Solidaritas Nusa Bangsa (SNB)& Asosiasi Penasehat Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia Indonesia (APHI).
Kahin, G. M. T. (1995). Nasionalisme dan Revolusi Di Indonesia. Sebelas Maret University Press & Pustaka Sinar Harapan.
Kammen, D., & Zakaria, F. (2012). Detention in Mass Violence: Policy and Practice in Indonesia, 1965-1968. Critical Asian Studies, 44(3), 441–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2012.711979 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2012.711979
Kartodirdjo, S. (1977). Sejarah Nasional Indinesia IV. Balai Pusataka.
Katiri, L. El, Fattouh, B., & Mallinson, R. (2014). The Arab Uprisings and MENA Political Instability : Implications for Oil & Gas Markets (Issue No. 8, March).
Klinken, G. van. (2007). Communal Violence and Democratization in Indonesia Small Town Wars. Routledge.
Komnas HAM. (2000). Ringkasan Eksekutif Laporan Tim Tindak Lanjut Hasil Komisi Penyelidikan dan Pemeriksaan Pelanggaran Hak Asasi Manusia di Tanjung Periuk (KP3T).
Matsiyevsky, Y. (2018). Revolution without regime change: The evidence from the post-Euromaidan Ukraine. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 51(4), 349–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postcomstud.2018.11.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postcomstud.2018.11.001
Maynard, J. L. (2015). Identity and Ideology in Political Violence and Conflict. St Antony’s International Review, 10(2), 18–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/26229187
McDonnell, M. A., & Waldstreicher, D. (2017). Revolution in the Quarterly? A Historiographical Analysis. The William and Mary Quarterly, 74(4), 633–666. https://doi.org/10.5309/willmaryquar.74.4.0633 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5309/willmaryquar.74.4.0633
Mollah, M. A. H., & Jahan, R. (2018). Parliamentary election and electoral violence in Bangladesh: the way forward. International Journal of Law and Management, 60(2), 741–756. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLMA-07-2017-0161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLMA-07-2017-0161
Nordholt, H. S. (2002). Kriminalitas, Modernitas dan Identitas dalam Sejarah Indonesia. Pustaka Pelajar.
Nugraha, A., & Purwanto, S. A. (2020). Neo-Ekstraktivisme Tambang Timah di Pulau Bangka. Indonesian Journal of Religion and Society, 2(1), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.36256/ijrs.v2i1.95 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36256/ijrs.v2i1.95
O’Donnell, G. A. (1988). Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Argentina, 1966-1973, in Comparative Perspective. University of California Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520336582
Onghokham. (1975). The Residency of Madiun; Priyayi and Peasant ini the Ninenteenth Century. Yale University.
Østby, G. (2013). Inequality and political violence: A review of the literature. International Area Studies Review, 16(2), 206–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/2233865913490937 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2233865913490937
Parry, R. L. (2005). In the Time of Madness: Indonesia on the Edge of Chaos. Serambi.
Piliang, Y. A. (2005). Transpolitika Dinamika Politik di dalam Era Virtual. Jalasutra.
Prasad, A. (2002). The Contest Over Meaning: Hermeneutics as an Interpretive. Organizational Research Methods, 5(1), 12–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428102051003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428102051003
Roosa, J. (2008). Dalih Pembunuhan Massal; Gerakan 30 September dan Kudeta Soeharto. Institut Sejarah Sosial Indonesia & Hasta Mitra.
Sidel, J. T. (2018). Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia. Cornell University Press.
Sinpeng, A. (2007). Democracy from Above: Regime Transition in the Kingdom of Bhutan. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 17(2), 21–48.
Stojanova, A. (2013). Elite- or mass-driven democratic consolidation ? Western Balkans in comparative perspective. IMT Institute for Advanced Studies, Lucca.
Suryawan, I. N. (2010). Geneologi Kekerasan dan Pergolakan Subaltern: Bara di Bali Utara. Prenada Media Group.
Sweijs, T., Farnham, N., Rõõs, H., Usanov, A., & Imanalieva, J. (2017). The Many Faces of Political Violence. In The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies.
Tadie, J. (2009). Wilayah Kekerasan Di Jakarta. Masup.
Tadjoeddin, M. Z. (2002). Anatomy of Social Violence in The Context of Transition: The Case of Indonesia, 1990-2001. Politics Administration and Change, 38, 1–35.
Tempo. (1984). Laporan dari Iran. No. 33 Tahun XIV, 1984.
Toer, P. A. (2003). Kronik Revolusi Indonesia (Jilid IV). Kepustakaan Populer Indonesia.
Valentino, B. A. (2014). Why we kill: The political science of political violence against civilians. Annual Review of Political Science, 17, 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-082112-141937 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-082112-141937
Zed, M. (2014). Metode Penelitian Kepustakaan (3rd ed.). Yayasan Obor Indonesia.