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ASSESSMENT OF FOOD SECURITY STATUS OF REFUGEES IN TURKEY USING FAO’S FOOD INSECURITY EXPERIENCE SCALE
Corresponding Author(s) : Abdulrazak Ghazal
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 2 (2021): March
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study aims to assess the food security status among Syrian and Iraqi refugees in Samsun, Turkey. In addition, to examine the association between refugees’ profiles and food security status.
Methodology: We surveyed 252 households through face-to-face and semi-structured questionnaires; these tools were used in data collection between 2019-2020. FAO’s scale, descriptive analysis, and Chi-square test were conducted to achieve the objectives of this study.
Main Findings: The findings indicated that the majority of refugees households, 60% experienced food insecurity. The results indicated that 30% of Syrian and 47% of Iraqi refugees were food security. Food security was significantly influenced by several socio-demographic (7 variables) and economic variables (9 variables).
Applications of this study: This paper provides implications for policymakers and refugees. The current study recommends applying specific programs that could alleviate food insecurity among refugees. The policymakers should improve the economic status of refugees' households, especially the most vulnerable. Likewise, the policies in this field should be built by understanding the factors influencing food security.
Novelty/Originality of this study: The current study is considered one of the pioneering and important studies in the food security field for refugees in Turkey. No studies have been conducted to assess food security for refugees. It seems to be important to review and re-evaluate the Turkish policies associated with refugees in Turkey.
Keywords
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- Abegaz, K. H. (2017). Determinants of food security: evidence from Ethiopian Rural Household Survey (ERHS) using pooled cross-sectional study. Agriculture & Food Security, 6(1), 1-7.†https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0153-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0153-1
- Ajani, S. R., Adebukola, B. C., & Oyindamola, Y. B. (2006). Measuring household food insecurity in selected local government areas of Lagos & Ibadan, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 5 (1). 62-67.†DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2006.62.67
- Alaimo, K., Olson, C. M., & Frongillo, E. A. (2001). Food insufficiency & American school-aged children's cognitive, academic, & psychosocial development. Pediatrics, 108(1), 44-53.â€
- Allee, A., Lynd, L. R., & Vaze, V. (2021). Cross-national analysis of food security drivers: comparing results based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale and Global Food Security Index. Food Security, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01156-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01156-w
- Amugsi, D. A., Lartey, A., Kimani-Murage, E., & Mberu, B. U. (2016). Women’s participation in household decision-making and higher dietary diversity: findings from nationally representative data from Ghana. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 35(1), 1-8.†https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-016-0053-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-016-0055-z
- Asadullah, M. N., & Kambhampati, U. (2021). Feminization of farming, food security and female empowerment. Global Food Security, 29, 100532.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100532 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100532
- Berry, E. M., Dernini, S., Burlingame, B., Meybeck, A., & Conforti, P. (2015). Food security & sustainability: can one exist without the other? Public Health Nutrition, 18(13). 2293-2302.†https://doi.org/10.1017/S13689 8001500021X[Opens in a new window] DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001500021X
- Carroll, J., Epstein, R., Fiscella, K., Volpe, E., Diaz, K., & Omar, S. (2007). Knowledge & beliefs about health promotion & preventive health care among Somali women in the United States. Health Care for Women International, 28(4). 360-380.†https://doi.org/10.1080/07399330601179935 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07399330601179935
- Dharod, J. M., Croom, J. E., & Sady, C. G. (2013). Food insecurity: its relationship to dietary intake & body weight among Somali refugee women in the United States. Journal Of Nutrition Education & Behavior, 45(1), 47-53.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2012.03.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2012.03.006
- FAO (2009). Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security. FAO, Rome, World Summit on Food Security.
- FAO (2009). Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (Accessed 01.01.2020). http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC.
- Farrukh, M. U., Bashir, M. K., Hassan, S., Adil, S. A., & Kragt, M. E. (2020). Mapping the food security studies in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh: Review of research priorities and gaps. Global Food Security, 26, 100370.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100370 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100370
- Fernandes, S. G., Rodrigues, A. M., Nunes, C., Santos, O., Gregório, M. J., de Sousa, R. D., Dias, S., & Canhão, H. (2018). Food insecurity in older adults: Results from the epidemiology of chronic diseases cohort study 3. Frontiers in Medicine, 5(203). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2018.00203 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2018.00203
- Frongillo, E. A., Nguyen, H. T., Smith, M. D., & Coleman-Jensen, A. (2017). Food insecurity is associated with subjective well-being among individuals from 138 countries in the 2014 Gallup World Poll. The Journal of Nutrition, 147(4), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.243642 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.243642
- Galiè, A., Teufel, N., Girard, A. W., Baltenweck, I., Dominguez-Salas, P., Price, M. J., ... & Yount, K. M. (2019). Women’s empowerment, food security and nutrition of pastoral communities in Tanzania. Global Food Security, 23, 125-134.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.04.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.04.005
- Hadley, C., & Sellen, D. (2006). Food security & child hunger among recently resettled Liberian refugees & asylum seekers: a pilot study. Journal of Immigrant & Minority Health, 8(4), 369-375.†https://doi.org/1 .1007/s10903-006-9007-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-006-9007-9
- Hadley, C., Zodhiates, A., & Sellen, D. W. (2007). Acculturation, economics & food insecurity among refugees resettled in the USA: a case study of West African refugees. Public Health Nutrition, 10(4), 405-412.†https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980007222943 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980007222943
- Ifeoma, I., & Agwu, A. (2014). Assessment of food security situation among farming households in rural areas of Kano State, Nigeria. Journal of Central European Agriculture,15(1), 94-107. https://doi.org/10.5513/j cea.v15i1.2443 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5513/JCEA01/15.1.1418
- IOM (2020). World migration report. Accessed: 01 January 2020. https://www.iom.int/.
- Iorlamen, T. R., Abu, G. A., & Lawal, W. L. (2014). Assessment of expenditure on food among urban households & it’s implication for food security: Evidence from Benue State, Nigeria. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition & Development, 14(2).â€
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- Melgar-Quinonez, H., & Hackett, M. (2008). Measuring household food security: the global experience. Revista de Nutrição, 21, 27s-37s.†https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-52732008000700004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-52732008000700004
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- Omidvar, N., Ghazi-Tabatabie, M., Sadeghi, R., Mohammadi, F., & Abbasi-Shavazi, M. J. (2013). Food insecurity & its sociodemographic correlates among Afghan immigrants in Iran. Journal Of Health, Population, & Nutrition, 31(3), 356.†DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/jhpn.v31i3.16828
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- Pereira, A., Handa, S., & Holmqvist, G. (2021). Estimating the prevalence of food insecurity of households with children under 15 years, across the globe. Global Food Security, 28, 100482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. gfs.2020.100482 †DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100482
- Pérez-Escamilla, R., Gubert, M. B., Rogers, B., & Hromi-Fiedler, A. (2017). Food security measurement & governance: Assessment of the usefulness of diverse food insecurity indicators for policy makers. Global Food Security, 14, 96-104.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.06.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.06.003
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- Sadiddin, A., Cattaneo, A., Cirillo, M., & Miller, M. (2019). Food insecurity as a determinant of international migration: evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Security, 11(3), 515-530.†https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00927-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00927-w
- Saint Ville, A., Po, J. Y. T., Sen, A., Bui, A., & Melgar-Quiñonez, H. (2019). Food security & the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES): ensuring progress by 2030.†Food Security, 11, 483–491. https://doi.org/10. 1 007/s12571-019-00936-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00936-9
- Shobe, M. A., Narcisse, M. R., & Christy, K. (2018). Household financial capital and food security. Journal of Poverty, 22(1), 1-22.†https://doi.org/10.1080/10875549.2017.1348426 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10875549.2017.1348426
- Sinharoy, S. S., Waid, J. L., Ali, M., Yount, K. M., & Thilsted, S. (2019). Resources for women's agency, household food security, and women's dietary diversity in urban Bangladesh.†Global Food Security, 23, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.03.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.03.001
- Smith, M. D., Kassa, W., & Winters, P. (2017). Assessing food insecurity in Latin America & the Caribbean using FAO’s food insecurity experience scale. Food Policy, 71, 48-61.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food pol.2017.07.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.07.005
- Titus, B., & Adetokunbo, G. (2007). An analysis of food security situation among Nigerian urban households: Evidence from Lagos State, Nigeria. Journal of Central European Agriculture. 8 (3). 397-406.â€
- UNHCR (2019). Turkey fact sheet. Accessed: 01 January 2020, https://reporting.unhcr.org/turkey
- Vilar-Compte, M., Gaitán-Rossi, P., & Pérez-Escamilla, R. (2017). Food insecurity measurement among older adults: Implications for policy & food security governance. Global Food Security, 14, 87-95.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.05.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.05.003
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References
Abegaz, K. H. (2017). Determinants of food security: evidence from Ethiopian Rural Household Survey (ERHS) using pooled cross-sectional study. Agriculture & Food Security, 6(1), 1-7.†https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0153-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0153-1
Ajani, S. R., Adebukola, B. C., & Oyindamola, Y. B. (2006). Measuring household food insecurity in selected local government areas of Lagos & Ibadan, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 5 (1). 62-67.†DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2006.62.67
Alaimo, K., Olson, C. M., & Frongillo, E. A. (2001). Food insufficiency & American school-aged children's cognitive, academic, & psychosocial development. Pediatrics, 108(1), 44-53.â€
Allee, A., Lynd, L. R., & Vaze, V. (2021). Cross-national analysis of food security drivers: comparing results based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale and Global Food Security Index. Food Security, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01156-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01156-w
Amugsi, D. A., Lartey, A., Kimani-Murage, E., & Mberu, B. U. (2016). Women’s participation in household decision-making and higher dietary diversity: findings from nationally representative data from Ghana. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 35(1), 1-8.†https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-016-0053-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-016-0055-z
Asadullah, M. N., & Kambhampati, U. (2021). Feminization of farming, food security and female empowerment. Global Food Security, 29, 100532.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100532 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100532
Berry, E. M., Dernini, S., Burlingame, B., Meybeck, A., & Conforti, P. (2015). Food security & sustainability: can one exist without the other? Public Health Nutrition, 18(13). 2293-2302.†https://doi.org/10.1017/S13689 8001500021X[Opens in a new window] DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001500021X
Carroll, J., Epstein, R., Fiscella, K., Volpe, E., Diaz, K., & Omar, S. (2007). Knowledge & beliefs about health promotion & preventive health care among Somali women in the United States. Health Care for Women International, 28(4). 360-380.†https://doi.org/10.1080/07399330601179935 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07399330601179935
Dharod, J. M., Croom, J. E., & Sady, C. G. (2013). Food insecurity: its relationship to dietary intake & body weight among Somali refugee women in the United States. Journal Of Nutrition Education & Behavior, 45(1), 47-53.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2012.03.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2012.03.006
FAO (2009). Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security. FAO, Rome, World Summit on Food Security.
FAO (2009). Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (Accessed 01.01.2020). http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC.
Farrukh, M. U., Bashir, M. K., Hassan, S., Adil, S. A., & Kragt, M. E. (2020). Mapping the food security studies in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh: Review of research priorities and gaps. Global Food Security, 26, 100370.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100370 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100370
Fernandes, S. G., Rodrigues, A. M., Nunes, C., Santos, O., Gregório, M. J., de Sousa, R. D., Dias, S., & Canhão, H. (2018). Food insecurity in older adults: Results from the epidemiology of chronic diseases cohort study 3. Frontiers in Medicine, 5(203). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2018.00203 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2018.00203
Frongillo, E. A., Nguyen, H. T., Smith, M. D., & Coleman-Jensen, A. (2017). Food insecurity is associated with subjective well-being among individuals from 138 countries in the 2014 Gallup World Poll. The Journal of Nutrition, 147(4), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.243642 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.243642
Galiè, A., Teufel, N., Girard, A. W., Baltenweck, I., Dominguez-Salas, P., Price, M. J., ... & Yount, K. M. (2019). Women’s empowerment, food security and nutrition of pastoral communities in Tanzania. Global Food Security, 23, 125-134.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.04.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.04.005
Hadley, C., & Sellen, D. (2006). Food security & child hunger among recently resettled Liberian refugees & asylum seekers: a pilot study. Journal of Immigrant & Minority Health, 8(4), 369-375.†https://doi.org/1 .1007/s10903-006-9007-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-006-9007-9
Hadley, C., Zodhiates, A., & Sellen, D. W. (2007). Acculturation, economics & food insecurity among refugees resettled in the USA: a case study of West African refugees. Public Health Nutrition, 10(4), 405-412.†https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980007222943 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980007222943
Ifeoma, I., & Agwu, A. (2014). Assessment of food security situation among farming households in rural areas of Kano State, Nigeria. Journal of Central European Agriculture,15(1), 94-107. https://doi.org/10.5513/j cea.v15i1.2443 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5513/JCEA01/15.1.1418
IOM (2020). World migration report. Accessed: 01 January 2020. https://www.iom.int/.
Iorlamen, T. R., Abu, G. A., & Lawal, W. L. (2014). Assessment of expenditure on food among urban households & it’s implication for food security: Evidence from Benue State, Nigeria. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition & Development, 14(2).â€
Larson, J. B., Castellanos, P., & Jensen, L. (2019). Gender, household food security, and dietary diversity in western Honduras. Global Food Security, 20, 170-179.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.01.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.01.005
Maitra, C. (2017). Adapting an experiential scale to measure food insecurity in urban slum households of India. Global Food Security, 15, 53-64.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.04.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.04.005
Melgar-Quinonez, H., & Hackett, M. (2008). Measuring household food security: the global experience. Revista de Nutrição, 21, 27s-37s.†https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-52732008000700004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-52732008000700004
Mota, A. A., Lachore, S. T., & H & iso, Y. H. (2019). Assessment of food insecurity & its determinants in the rural households in Damot Gale Woreda, Wolaita zone, southern Ethiopia. Agriculture & Food Security, 8(1), 11.†https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-019-0254-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-019-0254-0
Oberholser, C. A., & Tuttle, C. R. (2004). Assessment of household food security among food stamp recipient families in Maryland. American Journal of Public Health, 94(5), 790-795.†DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.94.5.790
Omidvar, N., Ghazi-Tabatabie, M., Sadeghi, R., Mohammadi, F., & Abbasi-Shavazi, M. J. (2013). Food insecurity & its sociodemographic correlates among Afghan immigrants in Iran. Journal Of Health, Population, & Nutrition, 31(3), 356.†DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/jhpn.v31i3.16828
Nunnery, D. L., & Dharod, J. M. (2017). Potential determinants of food security among refugees in the US: an examination of pre-& post-resettlement factors. Food Security, 9(1), 163-179.†https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-016-0637-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-016-0637-z
Park, J. Y., Ville, A. S., Schwinghamer, T., & Melgar-Quiñonez, H. (2019). Heterogeneous factors predict food insecurity among the elderly in developed countries: Insights from a multi-national analysis of 48 countries. Food Security, 11(3), 541–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00934-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00934-x
Peng, W., & Berry, E. M. (2018). Global nutrition 1990–2015: A shrinking hungry, and expanding fat world. PLoS ONE 13(3), e0194821. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194821 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194821
Pereira, A., Handa, S., & Holmqvist, G. (2021). Estimating the prevalence of food insecurity of households with children under 15 years, across the globe. Global Food Security, 28, 100482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. gfs.2020.100482 †DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100482
Pérez-Escamilla, R., Gubert, M. B., Rogers, B., & Hromi-Fiedler, A. (2017). Food security measurement & governance: Assessment of the usefulness of diverse food insecurity indicators for policy makers. Global Food Security, 14, 96-104.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.06.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.06.003
Price, M., Galie, A., Marshall, J., & Agu, N. (2018). Elucidating linkages between women’s empowerment in livestock and nutrition: a qualitative study. Development in Practice, 28(4), 510-524.â€https://doi.org/10.10 80/09614524.2018.1451491 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2018.1451491
Ramakrishna, G., & Demeke, A. (2002). An empirical analysis of food insecurity in Ethiopia: the case of North Wello. Africa Development/Afrique et Développement, 27 (1/2), 127-143.†DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/ad.v27i1.22154
Sadiddin, A., Cattaneo, A., Cirillo, M., & Miller, M. (2019). Food insecurity as a determinant of international migration: evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Security, 11(3), 515-530.†https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00927-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00927-w
Saint Ville, A., Po, J. Y. T., Sen, A., Bui, A., & Melgar-Quiñonez, H. (2019). Food security & the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES): ensuring progress by 2030.†Food Security, 11, 483–491. https://doi.org/10. 1 007/s12571-019-00936-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00936-9
Shobe, M. A., Narcisse, M. R., & Christy, K. (2018). Household financial capital and food security. Journal of Poverty, 22(1), 1-22.†https://doi.org/10.1080/10875549.2017.1348426 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10875549.2017.1348426
Sinharoy, S. S., Waid, J. L., Ali, M., Yount, K. M., & Thilsted, S. (2019). Resources for women's agency, household food security, and women's dietary diversity in urban Bangladesh.†Global Food Security, 23, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.03.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.03.001
Smith, M. D., Kassa, W., & Winters, P. (2017). Assessing food insecurity in Latin America & the Caribbean using FAO’s food insecurity experience scale. Food Policy, 71, 48-61.†https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food pol.2017.07.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.07.005
Titus, B., & Adetokunbo, G. (2007). An analysis of food security situation among Nigerian urban households: Evidence from Lagos State, Nigeria. Journal of Central European Agriculture. 8 (3). 397-406.â€
UNHCR (2019). Turkey fact sheet. Accessed: 01 January 2020, https://reporting.unhcr.org/turkey
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