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THE ROLE OF GENDER-TARGETED CASH TRANSFERS IN INCREASING SCHOOL ENROLLMENT IN PUNJAB, PAKISTAN
Corresponding Author(s) : Atif Khan Jadoon
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 2 (2021): March
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study is conducted to assess the success of the Female Stipend Program (FSP), started in the province Punjab, Pakistan under the Punjab Education Sector Reform Program in 2003.
Methodology: Panel data on household-level collected from years 2016 to 2018 is used for the analysis. The impact of cash transfers (directed towards female students in selected districts of the province) on female school enrollment in public (elementary and high) schools is measured. Enrollment growth in public schools is used as a dependent variable whereas female stipend, the number of schools, student to teacher ratio, the population of the districts, and basic facilities available in public schools are taken as independent variables. The results are obtained by employing Linear Mixed Multilevel Modeling.
Main findings: All the variables, except the population of districts, are having a highly significant impact on the enrollment rate in Punjab. Female school's stipend, number of schools in the district, and the accessibility to basic infrastructural facilities have an important impact on female enrollment rate while a high student to teacher ratio negatively contributes to female enrollment rate. Furthermore, districts, where a stipend program is implemented, have higher enrollments as compared to other districts in the province.
Application of the study: Outcomes of the study indicate that cash transfer programs directed towards female school enrollment are very fruitful in the case of Punjab. Therefore, such programs should be started in other provinces of the country as well.
Novelty/ Originality of the study: The present study contributes to the research gap by using the largest data set available for all 36 districts of the province. To further highlight major factors contributing to high female school enrollments, the study includes school infrastructure, the population of districts, student-teacher ratio, and availability of schools in the model.
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- Adato, M., Devereux, S., & Sabates-Wheeler, R. (2016). Accessing the ‘right’ kinds of material and symbolic capital: the role of cash transfers in reducing adolescent school absence and risky behaviour in South Africa. The Journal of Development Studies, 52(8), 1132-1146. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1134776 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1134776
- Adukia, A. (2017). Sanitation and education. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 9(2), 23-59. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150083
- Afzal, A., Nawazish, M., & Arshad, F. (2019). Conditional vs unconditional cash transfers: a study of poverty demographics in Pakistan. Economic research-Ekonomska istraživanja, 32(1), 3360-3377. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/1331677X.2019.1661006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2019.1661006
- Afzal, M., Butt, A. R., Akbar, R. A., & Roshi, S. (2013). Gender Disparity in Pakistan: A Case of Middle and Secondary Education in Punjab. Journal of Research & Reflections in Education (JRRE), 7(2).
- Ahmed, A. U., & Sharmeen, T. (2004). Assessing the performance of conditional cash transfer programs for girls and boys in primary and secondary schools in Bangladesh. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.
- Ahmed, V., & Zeshan, M. (2014). An analysis of the social impact of the stipend program for secondary school girls of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 13(2), 129-143. https://doi.org/10.1 007/s10671-013-9154-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-013-9154-4
- Ajani, I. R., & Akinyele, O. B. (2014). Effects of student-teacher ratio on academic achievement of selected secondary school students in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 24(5), 100-106.
- Akomolafe, C. O., & Adesua, V. O. (2016). The Impact of Physical Facilities on Students' Level of Motivation and Academic Performance in Senior Secondary Schools in South-West Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(4), 38-42.
- Alam, A., Baez, J. E., & Del Carpio, X. V. (2011). Does cash for school influence young women's behavior in the longer term? Evidence from Pakistan. Evidence from Pakistan (May 1, 2011). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper(5669). https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5669 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5669
- Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008). Student engagement with school: Critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 369-386. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20303
- Aslam, M., & Kingdon, G. G. (2008). Gender and household education expenditure in Pakistan. Applied Economics, 40(20), 2573-2591. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840600970252 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840600970252
- Barnes, H., Hall, K., & Wright, G. (2011). Review of research evidence on child poverty in South Africa. Report for the Monitoring and Learning Facility of the Programme to Support Pro-Poor Policy Development.
- Bastagli, F., Hagen-Zanker, J., Harman, L., Barca, V., Sturge, G., Schmidt, T., & Pellerano, L. (2016). Cash transfers: what does the evidence say. A rigorous review of programme impact and the role of design and implementation features. London: ODI, 1(7).
- Biggeri, M., Ferrannini, A., & Arciprete, C. (2018). Local communities and capability evolution: The core of human development processes. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 19(2), 126-146. https://doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2017.1411896 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2017.1411896
- Burney, N. A., & Irfan, M. (1995). Determinants of child school enrolment: evidence from LDCs using choiceâ€theoretic approach. International Journal of Social Economics. https://doi.org/10.1108/0306 8299510075113 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/03068299510075113
- Chaudhury, N., & Parajuli, D. (2007). Conditional cash transfers and female schooling: the impact of the female school stipend program on public school enrollments in Punjab, Pakistan: The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4102
- Cotto, S. A. M. (2018). povThe Effect of Cash Transfer Programs on Poverty Reduction. Business and Public Administration Studies, 12(1), 52-60.
- Davis, B., Handa, S., Hypher, N., Rossi, N. W., Winters, P., & Yablonski, J. (2016). From evidence to action: the story of cash transfers and impact evaluation in sub Saharan Africa: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198769446.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198769446.001.0001
- De Brauw, A., Gilligan, D. O., Hoddinott, J., & Roy, S. (2014). The impact of Bolsa FamÃlia on women’s decision-making power. World Development, 59, 487-504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.02.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.02.003
- Deolalikar, A. B. (1993). Gender differences in the returns to schooling and in school enrollment rates in Indonesia. Journal of Human Resources, 899-932. https://doi.org/10.2307/146297 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/146297
- Dubois, P., de Janvry, A., & Sadoulet, E. (2003). Effects on school enrollment and performance of a conditional transfers program in Mexico.
- Dubois, P., De Janvry, A., & Sadoulet, E. (2012). Effects on school enrollment and performance of a conditional cash transfer program in Mexico. Journal of Labor Economics, 30(3), 555-589. https://doi.org/ 10.1086/664928 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/664928
- Duclos, J.-Y., & Tiberti, L. (2016). Multidimensional poverty indices: A critical assessment. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2718374 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2718374
- Elborgh-Woytek, M. K., Newiak, M. M., Kochhar, M. K., Fabrizio, M. S., Kpodar, M. K., Wingender, M. P., . . . Schwartz, M. G. (2013). Women, work, and the economy: Macroeconomic gains from gender equity: International Monetary Fund. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781475566567.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5089/9781475566567.006
- Fergus, L. (2012). Prevention of violence against women and girls. Paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting in cooperation with ESCAP, UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF and WHO.
- Fiszbein, A., & Schady, N. R. (2009). Conditional cash transfers: reducing present and future poverty: World Bank Publications. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7352-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7352-1
- Hamza, A. (2016). The Impact of Building Toilets On School Enrollment: Down The Drain? , Georgetown University.
- Hayat, F. A. (2017). The Relationship Between Access to Toilets and School Enrollment in Pakistan. Georgetown University.
- Kilburn, K., Ferrone, L., Pettifor, A., Wagner, R., Gómez-Olivé, F. X., & Kahn, K. (2020). The Impact of a Conditional Cash Transfer on Multidimensional Deprivation of Young Women: Evidence from South Africa’s HTPN 068. Social Indicators Research, 151, 865-895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02367-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02367-y
- Kilburn, K., Handa, S., Angeles, G., Mvula, P., & Tsoka, M. (2017). Short-term impacts of an unconditional cash transfer program on child schooling: Experimental evidence from Malawi. Economics of education review, 59, 63-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.06.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.06.002
- Koc, N., & Celik, B. (2015). The impact of number of students per teacher on student achievement. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 177, 65-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.335 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.335
- Ladhani, S., & Sitter, K. C. (2020). Conditional cash transfers: A critical review. Development Policy Review, 38(1), 28-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12416 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12416
- Masood, A. (2015). Impact of Female Secondary School Stipend Program on Enrollment, Marriage and Fertility Outcomes in Rural Punjab. © Lahore School of Economics.
- Mingat, A., & Tan, J.-P. (1996). The full social returns to education: Estimates based on countries' economic growth performance: The World Bank.
- Mohamed, A. M. (2013). Determinants of school enrolment in Somalia: the case of primary education. University of Nairobi.
- Molyneux, M., Jones, W. N., & Samuels, F. (2016). Can cash transfer programmes have ‘transformative’effects? The Journal of Development Studies, 52(8), 1087-1098. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022 0388.2015.1134781 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1134781
- Narayanan, S. (2013). Choosing private schools: Examining primary school enrollment decisions in rural North India.
- Notten, G., & Guio, A.-C. (2019). The impact of social transfers on income poverty and material deprivation Decent Incomes for All. Improving Policies in Europe (pp. 85-107): Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190849696.003.0005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190849696.003.0005
- O'Neill, D. J., & Oates, A. D. (2001). The impact of school facilities on student achievement, behavior, attendance, and teacher turnover rate in Central Texas middle schools. Educational Facility Planner, 36(3), 14-22.
- Osei-Assibey, E. (2013). 2010 Population and Housing Census Report: Millennium Development Goals in Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.
- Purba, R. H. F. (2018). Impact Evaluation of Indonesia Conditional Cash Transfer Program (BSM) on Student Achievement. European Journal of Economics and Business Studies Articles, 10. https://doi.org/10.26417/ejes. v10i1.p104-115 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26417/ejes.v10i1.p104-115
- Raychaudhuri, A., Debnath, M., Sen, S., & Majumder, B. G. (2010). Factors affecting students’ academic performance: A case study in Agartala municipal council area. Bangladesh. e-Journal of Sociology, 7(2), 34-41.
- Saeed, M., & Wain, K. U. R. (2011). Status of Missing Physical Facilities in Government Schools of Punjab. Journal of Research & Reflections in Education (JRRE), 5(2).
- Sajid, G., & Khan, M. (2016). Determinants of primary school enrollment in Pakistan: Is poverty a hurdle in the way of educational attainment. The Pakistan Journal of Social Issues, 7, 1-18.
- Schultz, T. P. (1985). School Expenditures and Enrollments, 1960-1980: The Effects of Income, Price and Population Growth.
- Siddiqui, A., & Iram, U. (2007). Socioeconomic determinants of school progression in Pakistan. Applied Econometrics and International Development, 7(2).
- Simon, J. L., & Pilarski, A. M. (1979). The effect of population growth upon the quantity of education children receive. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 572-584. https://doi.org/10.2307/1935788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1935788
- Slater, R. (2011). Cash transfers, social protection and poverty reduction. International Journal of Social Welfare, 20(3), 250-259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2011.00801.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2011.00801.x
- Talukder, D. (2011). Analysis of the Impact of Education Enhancement Policy on Female Secondary Education in Bangladesh. Journal of Peace, Gender and Development Studies, 1(2), 61-72.
- Wilson, F. D., Rebhun, U., & Rivas, S. (2011). Population change and changing educational attainment of ethnic groups in the United States, 1980–2000. Population Research and Policy Review, 30(4), 639-659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-011-9204-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-011-9204-7
References
Adato, M., Devereux, S., & Sabates-Wheeler, R. (2016). Accessing the ‘right’ kinds of material and symbolic capital: the role of cash transfers in reducing adolescent school absence and risky behaviour in South Africa. The Journal of Development Studies, 52(8), 1132-1146. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1134776 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1134776
Adukia, A. (2017). Sanitation and education. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 9(2), 23-59. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150083
Afzal, A., Nawazish, M., & Arshad, F. (2019). Conditional vs unconditional cash transfers: a study of poverty demographics in Pakistan. Economic research-Ekonomska istraživanja, 32(1), 3360-3377. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/1331677X.2019.1661006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2019.1661006
Afzal, M., Butt, A. R., Akbar, R. A., & Roshi, S. (2013). Gender Disparity in Pakistan: A Case of Middle and Secondary Education in Punjab. Journal of Research & Reflections in Education (JRRE), 7(2).
Ahmed, A. U., & Sharmeen, T. (2004). Assessing the performance of conditional cash transfer programs for girls and boys in primary and secondary schools in Bangladesh. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.
Ahmed, V., & Zeshan, M. (2014). An analysis of the social impact of the stipend program for secondary school girls of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 13(2), 129-143. https://doi.org/10.1 007/s10671-013-9154-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-013-9154-4
Ajani, I. R., & Akinyele, O. B. (2014). Effects of student-teacher ratio on academic achievement of selected secondary school students in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 24(5), 100-106.
Akomolafe, C. O., & Adesua, V. O. (2016). The Impact of Physical Facilities on Students' Level of Motivation and Academic Performance in Senior Secondary Schools in South-West Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(4), 38-42.
Alam, A., Baez, J. E., & Del Carpio, X. V. (2011). Does cash for school influence young women's behavior in the longer term? Evidence from Pakistan. Evidence from Pakistan (May 1, 2011). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper(5669). https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5669 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5669
Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008). Student engagement with school: Critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 369-386. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20303
Aslam, M., & Kingdon, G. G. (2008). Gender and household education expenditure in Pakistan. Applied Economics, 40(20), 2573-2591. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840600970252 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840600970252
Barnes, H., Hall, K., & Wright, G. (2011). Review of research evidence on child poverty in South Africa. Report for the Monitoring and Learning Facility of the Programme to Support Pro-Poor Policy Development.
Bastagli, F., Hagen-Zanker, J., Harman, L., Barca, V., Sturge, G., Schmidt, T., & Pellerano, L. (2016). Cash transfers: what does the evidence say. A rigorous review of programme impact and the role of design and implementation features. London: ODI, 1(7).
Biggeri, M., Ferrannini, A., & Arciprete, C. (2018). Local communities and capability evolution: The core of human development processes. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 19(2), 126-146. https://doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2017.1411896 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2017.1411896
Burney, N. A., & Irfan, M. (1995). Determinants of child school enrolment: evidence from LDCs using choiceâ€theoretic approach. International Journal of Social Economics. https://doi.org/10.1108/0306 8299510075113 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/03068299510075113
Chaudhury, N., & Parajuli, D. (2007). Conditional cash transfers and female schooling: the impact of the female school stipend program on public school enrollments in Punjab, Pakistan: The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4102
Cotto, S. A. M. (2018). povThe Effect of Cash Transfer Programs on Poverty Reduction. Business and Public Administration Studies, 12(1), 52-60.
Davis, B., Handa, S., Hypher, N., Rossi, N. W., Winters, P., & Yablonski, J. (2016). From evidence to action: the story of cash transfers and impact evaluation in sub Saharan Africa: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198769446.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198769446.001.0001
De Brauw, A., Gilligan, D. O., Hoddinott, J., & Roy, S. (2014). The impact of Bolsa FamÃlia on women’s decision-making power. World Development, 59, 487-504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.02.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.02.003
Deolalikar, A. B. (1993). Gender differences in the returns to schooling and in school enrollment rates in Indonesia. Journal of Human Resources, 899-932. https://doi.org/10.2307/146297 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/146297
Dubois, P., de Janvry, A., & Sadoulet, E. (2003). Effects on school enrollment and performance of a conditional transfers program in Mexico.
Dubois, P., De Janvry, A., & Sadoulet, E. (2012). Effects on school enrollment and performance of a conditional cash transfer program in Mexico. Journal of Labor Economics, 30(3), 555-589. https://doi.org/ 10.1086/664928 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/664928
Duclos, J.-Y., & Tiberti, L. (2016). Multidimensional poverty indices: A critical assessment. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2718374 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2718374
Elborgh-Woytek, M. K., Newiak, M. M., Kochhar, M. K., Fabrizio, M. S., Kpodar, M. K., Wingender, M. P., . . . Schwartz, M. G. (2013). Women, work, and the economy: Macroeconomic gains from gender equity: International Monetary Fund. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781475566567.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5089/9781475566567.006
Fergus, L. (2012). Prevention of violence against women and girls. Paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting in cooperation with ESCAP, UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF and WHO.
Fiszbein, A., & Schady, N. R. (2009). Conditional cash transfers: reducing present and future poverty: World Bank Publications. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7352-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7352-1
Hamza, A. (2016). The Impact of Building Toilets On School Enrollment: Down The Drain? , Georgetown University.
Hayat, F. A. (2017). The Relationship Between Access to Toilets and School Enrollment in Pakistan. Georgetown University.
Kilburn, K., Ferrone, L., Pettifor, A., Wagner, R., Gómez-Olivé, F. X., & Kahn, K. (2020). The Impact of a Conditional Cash Transfer on Multidimensional Deprivation of Young Women: Evidence from South Africa’s HTPN 068. Social Indicators Research, 151, 865-895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02367-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02367-y
Kilburn, K., Handa, S., Angeles, G., Mvula, P., & Tsoka, M. (2017). Short-term impacts of an unconditional cash transfer program on child schooling: Experimental evidence from Malawi. Economics of education review, 59, 63-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.06.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.06.002
Koc, N., & Celik, B. (2015). The impact of number of students per teacher on student achievement. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 177, 65-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.335 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.335
Ladhani, S., & Sitter, K. C. (2020). Conditional cash transfers: A critical review. Development Policy Review, 38(1), 28-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12416 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12416
Masood, A. (2015). Impact of Female Secondary School Stipend Program on Enrollment, Marriage and Fertility Outcomes in Rural Punjab. © Lahore School of Economics.
Mingat, A., & Tan, J.-P. (1996). The full social returns to education: Estimates based on countries' economic growth performance: The World Bank.
Mohamed, A. M. (2013). Determinants of school enrolment in Somalia: the case of primary education. University of Nairobi.
Molyneux, M., Jones, W. N., & Samuels, F. (2016). Can cash transfer programmes have ‘transformative’effects? The Journal of Development Studies, 52(8), 1087-1098. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022 0388.2015.1134781 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1134781
Narayanan, S. (2013). Choosing private schools: Examining primary school enrollment decisions in rural North India.
Notten, G., & Guio, A.-C. (2019). The impact of social transfers on income poverty and material deprivation Decent Incomes for All. Improving Policies in Europe (pp. 85-107): Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190849696.003.0005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190849696.003.0005
O'Neill, D. J., & Oates, A. D. (2001). The impact of school facilities on student achievement, behavior, attendance, and teacher turnover rate in Central Texas middle schools. Educational Facility Planner, 36(3), 14-22.
Osei-Assibey, E. (2013). 2010 Population and Housing Census Report: Millennium Development Goals in Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.
Purba, R. H. F. (2018). Impact Evaluation of Indonesia Conditional Cash Transfer Program (BSM) on Student Achievement. European Journal of Economics and Business Studies Articles, 10. https://doi.org/10.26417/ejes. v10i1.p104-115 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26417/ejes.v10i1.p104-115
Raychaudhuri, A., Debnath, M., Sen, S., & Majumder, B. G. (2010). Factors affecting students’ academic performance: A case study in Agartala municipal council area. Bangladesh. e-Journal of Sociology, 7(2), 34-41.
Saeed, M., & Wain, K. U. R. (2011). Status of Missing Physical Facilities in Government Schools of Punjab. Journal of Research & Reflections in Education (JRRE), 5(2).
Sajid, G., & Khan, M. (2016). Determinants of primary school enrollment in Pakistan: Is poverty a hurdle in the way of educational attainment. The Pakistan Journal of Social Issues, 7, 1-18.
Schultz, T. P. (1985). School Expenditures and Enrollments, 1960-1980: The Effects of Income, Price and Population Growth.
Siddiqui, A., & Iram, U. (2007). Socioeconomic determinants of school progression in Pakistan. Applied Econometrics and International Development, 7(2).
Simon, J. L., & Pilarski, A. M. (1979). The effect of population growth upon the quantity of education children receive. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 572-584. https://doi.org/10.2307/1935788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1935788
Slater, R. (2011). Cash transfers, social protection and poverty reduction. International Journal of Social Welfare, 20(3), 250-259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2011.00801.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2011.00801.x
Talukder, D. (2011). Analysis of the Impact of Education Enhancement Policy on Female Secondary Education in Bangladesh. Journal of Peace, Gender and Development Studies, 1(2), 61-72.
Wilson, F. D., Rebhun, U., & Rivas, S. (2011). Population change and changing educational attainment of ethnic groups in the United States, 1980–2000. Population Research and Policy Review, 30(4), 639-659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-011-9204-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-011-9204-7