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INVESTIGATING COMMUNITY RESILIENCE AGAINST VIOLENT EXTREMISM THROUGH LIVED EXPERIENCES OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS IN SWAT-PAKISTAN
Corresponding Author(s) : Muhammad Idris
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the Research: The paper focuses to investigate CR (community resilience) counter to extremism through the lived experiences of community members.
Methodology: To gather appropriate data from the partakers, the qualitative research design was applied. To analyze the gathered Clarke and Braun (2014) thematic analysis approach was used.
Results: The results of this research work were construed and the ways forward were fitted out given that. the project team is in the process of initiating a report that focuses on strengthening community capacity, which is the main objective of this paper. The edition will make a positive contribution to all interested and humane people, mostly to the less fortunate.
Application of the research: Moreover, it can be said that this project will have an impact on future research in the field of community empowerment. This work will also highlight the important opportunity for historical research on community resilience to combat violent extremism.
Novelty/Originality of the research: Past research has sufficiently investigated similar topics. However, none of the past research approached the topic through the lived experience of the community members. Thus, this research (by studying the problem through the lived experience of the community members) is unique.
Keywords
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- Ahmed, Z. S., & Zahoor, M. (2020). Impacts of the ‘War on Terror on the (De-) Humanization of Christians in Pakistan: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Media Reporting. Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 31(1), 85-103. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2020.1713569 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2020.1713569
- Akram, M., Nasar, A., & Rehman, A. (2021). Misuse of charitable giving to finance violent extremism; A futuristic actions study amidst COVID-19 pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 4(1), 100-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100140 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100140
- Alam, J. (2021). Religious identity and politics: Exploring the causes of the political persecution of religious minorities in Kohat District, Pakistan. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, https://doi.org/10.1177/2 057891121997577 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2057891121997577
- Bhattacharya, S. (2020). Violence on women an “Acceptable†Assertion in Pakistan. World Affair 24(2), 142-158.
- Bilal, M. (2021). The Politics of Popular Islam: An Ethnographic Exploration of Islamic Revivalism in Pakistan. Politics and Religion Journal, 15(1), 193-219.
- Burt, C. H., Simons, R. L., & Gibbons, F. X. (2012). Racial discrimination, ethnic-racial socialization, and crime: A micro-sociological model of risk and resilience. American sociological review, 77(4), 648-677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412448648 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412448648
- Chandra, A., Williams, M., Plough, A., Stayton, A., Wells, K. B., Horta, M., & Tang, J. (2013). Getting actionable about community resilience: The Los Angeles county community disaster resilience project. American journal of public health, 103(7), 1181-1189. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301270 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301270
- Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2014). Thematic analysis. In Encyclopedia of critical psychology (pp. 1947-1952). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_311 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_311
- Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage publications.
- Davies, G., Doering, S., & Neudecker, C. (2021). The Role of Psychological Assessment in Countering Violent Extremism. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series-E: Human and Societal Dynamics, 152, 297-323. https://doi.org/10.3233/NHSDP210018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/NHSDP210018
- Fair, C. C., Littman, R., Malhotra, N., & Shapiro, J. N. (2018). Relative poverty, perceived violence, and support for militant politics: Evidence from Pakistan. Political Science Research and Methods, 6(1), 57-81. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.6
- Hearn, J. H., Finlay, K. A., & Sheffield, D. (2021). Trying to bring attention to your body when you’re not sure where it is: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of drivers and barriers to mindfulness for people with spinal cord injury. British Journal of Health Psychology, 26(1), 161-178. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12462 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12462
- Hirschi, T. (1969). Key idea: Hirschi’s social bond/social control theory. Key Ideas in Criminology and Criminal Justice,(1969), 55-69.
- Hodge, D. R., Zidan, T., & Husain, A. (2015). Depression among Muslims in the United States: Examining the role of discrimination and spirituality as risk and protective factors. Social work, 61(1), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swv055 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swv055
- Hong, B., Bonczak, B. J., Gupta, A., & Kontokosta, C. E. (2021). Measuring inequality in community resilience to natural disasters using large-scale mobility data. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10. 1038/s41467-021-22160-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22160-w
- Hussain, I., Mushtaq, S., & Hussain, G. (2021). Determinants of Religious Intolerance In The Youth of Pakistan. PalArch's Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, 18(4), 2878-2882.
- Kapur, S. (2021). Bridging the gap between theory and praxis: An exploration of international society's responsibility towards instability in Pakistan, 1947-2020 (Doctoral dissertation, Lancaster University).
- Kundnani, A., & Hayes, B. (2018). The Globalisation of Countering Violent Extremism Policies. Undermining Human Rights, Instrumentalising Civil Society. Amsterdam: Transnational Institute.
- Ma, Z., Guo, S., Deng, X., & Xu, D. (2021). Community resilience and resident's disaster preparedness: evidence from China's earthquake-stricken areas. Natural Hazards, 1-25. Natural Hazards https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04695-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04695-9
- Majeed, G. (2021). A Historical Account of Sectarianism in Pakistan and Persecution of Shia Hazara Community of Quetta in Balochistan. Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 5(1), 380-392. https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2021(5-I)29 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2021(5-I)29
- Malik, Z. U. A., He, Z., & Rafay, M. (2019). War on Terrorism in Pakistan: Challenges and Strategic Steps. Vestnik RUDN. International Relations, 19(4), 625-631. https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2019-19-4-625-631 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2019-19-4-625-631
- Mehfooz, M. (2021). Religious Freedom in Pakistan: A Case Study of Religious Minorities. Religions, 12(1), 51. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12010051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12010051
- Milena, Z. R., Dainora, G., & Alin, S. (2008). Qualitative research methods: A comparison between focus-group and in-depth interview. Annals of the University of Oradea, Economic Science Series, 17(4), 1279-1283.
- Muzamil, M. R., Tschakert, P., Boruff, B., & Shahbaz, B. (2021). An extreme climatic event and systemic vulnerabilities in the face of conflict: insights from the Taliban insurgency in Swat, Pakistan. Regional Environmental Change, 21(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01738-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01738-y
- Norris, F. H., & AlegrÃa, M. (2008). Promoting disaster recovery in ethnic-minority individuals and communities. In Ethnocultural perspectives on disaster and trauma (pp. 15-35). Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73285-5_2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73285-5_2
- Piazza, J. A. (2011). Poverty, minority economic discrimination, and domestic terrorism. Journal of Peace Research, 48(3), 339-353. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310397404 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310397404
- Onwudiwe, I. D., & Mendie, E. (2021). 15 The impact of terrorism in South Asia. Terrorism, Security and Development in South Asia: National, Regional and Global Implications. https://doi.org/10.432 4/9780429342523-19 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429342523-19
- Pervez, M. S. (Ed.). (2020). Radicalization in Pakistan: A Critical Perspective (Vol. 40). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003107897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003107897
- Ramakrishna, K. (2021). Book review: Shanthie Mariet D’Souza (Ed.), Countering Insurgencies and Violent Extremism in South and Southeast Asia. 133-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347797021992172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2347797021992172
- Rehman, Z. U., Abbas, S., Khan, M. A., Mustafa, G., Fayyaz, H., Hanif, M., & Saeed, M. A. (2021). Understanding the Language of ISIS: An Empirical Approach to Detect Radical Content on Twitter Using Machine Learning. CMC-COMPUTERS MATERIALS & CONTINUA, 66(2), 1075-1090. https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2020.012770 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2020.012770
- Richards, I. (2020). ‘Sustainable Development’, Counter-terrorism and the Prevention of Violent Extremism: Right-wing Nationalism and Neo-jihadism in Context. The Emerald Handbook of Crime, Justice and Sustainable Development. Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78769-355-520201022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78769-355-520201022
- Romaniuk, P. (2015). Does CVE work? Lessons learned from the global effort to counter violent extremism. Global Center on Cooperative Security. Retrieved October 10, 2016.
- Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighbourhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918-924. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918
- Schanzer, D. H., Kurzman, C., Toliver, J., & Miller, E. (2016). The challenge and promise of using community policing strategies to prevent violent extremism: A call for community partnerships with law enforcement to enhance public safety. Durham: Triangle Center on Terrorism and Homeland Security.
- Steeves, H. P. (1994). Phenomenology and the possibility of narrative. Clio, 24(1), 21-37.
- Subedi, D. B., & Jenkins, B. (2016). Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism: Engaging Peacebuilding and Development Actors. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(10), 13-19.
- Svennevig, H., Jerome, L., & Elwick, A. (2021). Countering violent extremism in education: a human rights analysis. Human Rights Education Review, 4(1), 91-110. https://doi.org/10.7577/hrer.3980 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7577/hrer.3980
- Tavakol, S., Dennick, R., & Tavakol, M. (2012). Medical students’ understanding of empathy: a phenomenological study. Medical education, 46(3), 306-316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04152.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04152.x
- Ting, X., Yong, B., Yin, L., & Mi, T. (2016). Patient perception and the barriers to practicing patient-centered communication: A survey and in-depth interview of Chinese patients and physicians. Patient Education and Counseling, 99(3), 364-369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2015.07.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2015.07.019
- Victoroff, J., Adelman, J. R., & Matthews, M. (2012). Psychological factors associated with support for suicide bombing in the Muslim diaspora. Political Psychology, 33(6), 791-809. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00913.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00913.x
- Wahab, S. (2021). Causes & Consequences of Terrorism in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. International Journal of Research 8(2), 234-245.
- Weine, S., Cohen, J., & Brannegan, D. (2015). Moving beyond motive-based categories of targeted violence (No. ANL/GSS-15/6). Argonne National Lab. (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States). https://doi.org/10.2172/1224067 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2172/1224067
References
Ahmed, Z. S., & Zahoor, M. (2020). Impacts of the ‘War on Terror on the (De-) Humanization of Christians in Pakistan: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Media Reporting. Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 31(1), 85-103. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2020.1713569 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2020.1713569
Akram, M., Nasar, A., & Rehman, A. (2021). Misuse of charitable giving to finance violent extremism; A futuristic actions study amidst COVID-19 pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 4(1), 100-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100140 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100140
Alam, J. (2021). Religious identity and politics: Exploring the causes of the political persecution of religious minorities in Kohat District, Pakistan. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, https://doi.org/10.1177/2 057891121997577 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2057891121997577
Bhattacharya, S. (2020). Violence on women an “Acceptable†Assertion in Pakistan. World Affair 24(2), 142-158.
Bilal, M. (2021). The Politics of Popular Islam: An Ethnographic Exploration of Islamic Revivalism in Pakistan. Politics and Religion Journal, 15(1), 193-219.
Burt, C. H., Simons, R. L., & Gibbons, F. X. (2012). Racial discrimination, ethnic-racial socialization, and crime: A micro-sociological model of risk and resilience. American sociological review, 77(4), 648-677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412448648 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412448648
Chandra, A., Williams, M., Plough, A., Stayton, A., Wells, K. B., Horta, M., & Tang, J. (2013). Getting actionable about community resilience: The Los Angeles county community disaster resilience project. American journal of public health, 103(7), 1181-1189. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301270 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301270
Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2014). Thematic analysis. In Encyclopedia of critical psychology (pp. 1947-1952). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_311 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_311
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage publications.
Davies, G., Doering, S., & Neudecker, C. (2021). The Role of Psychological Assessment in Countering Violent Extremism. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series-E: Human and Societal Dynamics, 152, 297-323. https://doi.org/10.3233/NHSDP210018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/NHSDP210018
Fair, C. C., Littman, R., Malhotra, N., & Shapiro, J. N. (2018). Relative poverty, perceived violence, and support for militant politics: Evidence from Pakistan. Political Science Research and Methods, 6(1), 57-81. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.6
Hearn, J. H., Finlay, K. A., & Sheffield, D. (2021). Trying to bring attention to your body when you’re not sure where it is: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of drivers and barriers to mindfulness for people with spinal cord injury. British Journal of Health Psychology, 26(1), 161-178. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12462 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12462
Hirschi, T. (1969). Key idea: Hirschi’s social bond/social control theory. Key Ideas in Criminology and Criminal Justice,(1969), 55-69.
Hodge, D. R., Zidan, T., & Husain, A. (2015). Depression among Muslims in the United States: Examining the role of discrimination and spirituality as risk and protective factors. Social work, 61(1), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swv055 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swv055
Hong, B., Bonczak, B. J., Gupta, A., & Kontokosta, C. E. (2021). Measuring inequality in community resilience to natural disasters using large-scale mobility data. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10. 1038/s41467-021-22160-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22160-w
Hussain, I., Mushtaq, S., & Hussain, G. (2021). Determinants of Religious Intolerance In The Youth of Pakistan. PalArch's Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, 18(4), 2878-2882.
Kapur, S. (2021). Bridging the gap between theory and praxis: An exploration of international society's responsibility towards instability in Pakistan, 1947-2020 (Doctoral dissertation, Lancaster University).
Kundnani, A., & Hayes, B. (2018). The Globalisation of Countering Violent Extremism Policies. Undermining Human Rights, Instrumentalising Civil Society. Amsterdam: Transnational Institute.
Ma, Z., Guo, S., Deng, X., & Xu, D. (2021). Community resilience and resident's disaster preparedness: evidence from China's earthquake-stricken areas. Natural Hazards, 1-25. Natural Hazards https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04695-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04695-9
Majeed, G. (2021). A Historical Account of Sectarianism in Pakistan and Persecution of Shia Hazara Community of Quetta in Balochistan. Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 5(1), 380-392. https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2021(5-I)29 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2021(5-I)29
Malik, Z. U. A., He, Z., & Rafay, M. (2019). War on Terrorism in Pakistan: Challenges and Strategic Steps. Vestnik RUDN. International Relations, 19(4), 625-631. https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2019-19-4-625-631 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2019-19-4-625-631
Mehfooz, M. (2021). Religious Freedom in Pakistan: A Case Study of Religious Minorities. Religions, 12(1), 51. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12010051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12010051
Milena, Z. R., Dainora, G., & Alin, S. (2008). Qualitative research methods: A comparison between focus-group and in-depth interview. Annals of the University of Oradea, Economic Science Series, 17(4), 1279-1283.
Muzamil, M. R., Tschakert, P., Boruff, B., & Shahbaz, B. (2021). An extreme climatic event and systemic vulnerabilities in the face of conflict: insights from the Taliban insurgency in Swat, Pakistan. Regional Environmental Change, 21(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01738-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01738-y
Norris, F. H., & AlegrÃa, M. (2008). Promoting disaster recovery in ethnic-minority individuals and communities. In Ethnocultural perspectives on disaster and trauma (pp. 15-35). Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73285-5_2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73285-5_2
Piazza, J. A. (2011). Poverty, minority economic discrimination, and domestic terrorism. Journal of Peace Research, 48(3), 339-353. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310397404 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310397404
Onwudiwe, I. D., & Mendie, E. (2021). 15 The impact of terrorism in South Asia. Terrorism, Security and Development in South Asia: National, Regional and Global Implications. https://doi.org/10.432 4/9780429342523-19 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429342523-19
Pervez, M. S. (Ed.). (2020). Radicalization in Pakistan: A Critical Perspective (Vol. 40). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003107897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003107897
Ramakrishna, K. (2021). Book review: Shanthie Mariet D’Souza (Ed.), Countering Insurgencies and Violent Extremism in South and Southeast Asia. 133-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347797021992172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2347797021992172
Rehman, Z. U., Abbas, S., Khan, M. A., Mustafa, G., Fayyaz, H., Hanif, M., & Saeed, M. A. (2021). Understanding the Language of ISIS: An Empirical Approach to Detect Radical Content on Twitter Using Machine Learning. CMC-COMPUTERS MATERIALS & CONTINUA, 66(2), 1075-1090. https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2020.012770 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2020.012770
Richards, I. (2020). ‘Sustainable Development’, Counter-terrorism and the Prevention of Violent Extremism: Right-wing Nationalism and Neo-jihadism in Context. The Emerald Handbook of Crime, Justice and Sustainable Development. Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78769-355-520201022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78769-355-520201022
Romaniuk, P. (2015). Does CVE work? Lessons learned from the global effort to counter violent extremism. Global Center on Cooperative Security. Retrieved October 10, 2016.
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighbourhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918-924. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918
Schanzer, D. H., Kurzman, C., Toliver, J., & Miller, E. (2016). The challenge and promise of using community policing strategies to prevent violent extremism: A call for community partnerships with law enforcement to enhance public safety. Durham: Triangle Center on Terrorism and Homeland Security.
Steeves, H. P. (1994). Phenomenology and the possibility of narrative. Clio, 24(1), 21-37.
Subedi, D. B., & Jenkins, B. (2016). Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism: Engaging Peacebuilding and Development Actors. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(10), 13-19.
Svennevig, H., Jerome, L., & Elwick, A. (2021). Countering violent extremism in education: a human rights analysis. Human Rights Education Review, 4(1), 91-110. https://doi.org/10.7577/hrer.3980 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7577/hrer.3980
Tavakol, S., Dennick, R., & Tavakol, M. (2012). Medical students’ understanding of empathy: a phenomenological study. Medical education, 46(3), 306-316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04152.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04152.x
Ting, X., Yong, B., Yin, L., & Mi, T. (2016). Patient perception and the barriers to practicing patient-centered communication: A survey and in-depth interview of Chinese patients and physicians. Patient Education and Counseling, 99(3), 364-369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2015.07.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2015.07.019
Victoroff, J., Adelman, J. R., & Matthews, M. (2012). Psychological factors associated with support for suicide bombing in the Muslim diaspora. Political Psychology, 33(6), 791-809. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00913.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00913.x
Wahab, S. (2021). Causes & Consequences of Terrorism in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. International Journal of Research 8(2), 234-245.
Weine, S., Cohen, J., & Brannegan, D. (2015). Moving beyond motive-based categories of targeted violence (No. ANL/GSS-15/6). Argonne National Lab. (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States). https://doi.org/10.2172/1224067 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2172/1224067