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WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF ECONOMIC GROWTH: AN EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT FOR PAKISTAN
Corresponding Author(s) : Jawad Rahim Afridi
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: GDP Growth does not necessarily bring improvements in the lives of people belonging to lower social strata. The objective of this study is to analyse the welfare implications of economic growth in Pakistan. We aim to investigate that to what extent economic growth has been successful to bring improvements in the welfare of the poor segments of the society.
Methodology: By using the data of different waves of Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES), Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS), Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) Survey over the period of 1990-2017, we have done an analysis of income shares received by different income groups. We have also constructed Ahluwalia-Chenery Equal Weighted and Poverty Weighted Welfare Indices (Ahluwalia and Chenery, 1974). In order to analyse the welfare implications of economic growth in the country, these indices have been compared with another index termed as Income Weighted Index (IWI).
Main Findings: Empirical results indicate that substantial income gaps exist among different income groups. In the absence of an effective fiscal policy, these gaps do not seem to be narrower.
Keywords
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- Ahluwalia, M.S. and Chenery, H. (1974). The economic framework, in Chenery, H. et al. (ed.). Redistribution with Growth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, London, 38-51.
- Anand, S. and Harris, C.J. (1994). Choosing a welfare indicator. The American Economic Review, 84(2), 226-231.
- Atkinson, A.B. (1970). On measurement of inequality. Journal of Economic Theory, 2, 244-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0531(70)90039-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0531(70)90039-6
- Bentham, J. (1776). A Fragment on Government: Being an Examination of what is Delivered, on the Subject of Government in General, in the Introduction to Sir William Blackstone's Commentaries: with a Preface, in which is Given a Critique on the Work at Large (No. 2). T. Payne; P. Elmsly; and E. Brooke. https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00077301 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00077301
- Bergson, A. (1938). A reformulation of certain aspects of welfare economics. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 52, 310-334. https://doi.org/10.2307/1881737 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1881737
- Bor, J., Cohen, G.H. and Galea, S. (2017). Population health in an era of rising income inequality: USA, 1980–2015. The Lancet, 389, 1475-1490. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30571-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30571-8
- Burns, J.H. (2005). Happiness and utility: Jeremy Bentham's equation. Utilitas, 17, 46-61. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953820804001396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953820804001396
- Costanza, R., Hart, M., Posner, S., Talberth, J. (2009). Beyond GDP: The need for new measures of progress. Pardee Paper No. 4, Boston: Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future.
- Gini, C. (1912). Variability and mutability. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 76(3), 326-327. https://doi.org/10.2307/2340052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2340052
- Hatzius, J. (1997). Foreign direct investment, capital formation and labor costs: Evidence from Britain and Germany (London School of Economics Paper No. 336). London: Center for Economic Performance, London School of Economics.
- Helliwell, J., Layard, R. and Sachs, J. (2017). World Happiness Report 2017, New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Network
- Hicks, N. and Streeten, P. (1979). Indicators of development: The search for a basic needs yardstick. World Development 7, 567-580. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(79)90093-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(79)90093-7
- Hussain, I. (1999). Institutions of restraint: The missing element in Pakistan’s governance. The Pakistan Development Review, 38(4), 511-536. https://doi.org/10.30541/v38i4Ipp.511-536 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30541/v38i4Ipp.511-536
- Hussain, I., Khan, Z. and Rafiq, M., (2017). Compositional changes in public expenditure and economic growth: Time series evidence from Pakistan. Business and Economic Review, 9(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.22547/BER/9.1.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22547/BER/9.1.1
- Jeffrey, K., Wheatley, H., Abdallah, S. (2016). The Happy Planet Index. A global index of sustainable wellbeing. London: New Economics.
- Kaldor, Nicholas. (1939). Welfare propositions in economics and interpersonal comparisons of utility. Economic Journal, 49(145), 549-552. https://doi.org/10.2307/2224835 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2224835
- Kalia, S. (2015). Human development in Pakistan and bureaucratic predicaments. International Journal of Public Administration, 38(3), 216-226. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2014.934840 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2014.934840
- Klasen, S. (1994). Growth and well-being: Introducing distribution-weighted growth rates to re-evaluate U.S. post-war economic performance. Review of Income and Wealth, 40(3), 251-72. https://doi.org/10.1 111/j.1475-4991.1994.tb00068.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1994.tb00068.x
- Koutsoyiannis, A. (1979). Modern Microeconomics (2nd ed.). Canada: Waterloo. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 9781349160778 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/9781349160778
- Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. Review Literature and Arts of the Americas, 45(1), 1-28.
- Lawn, P. and Sanders, R. (1999). Has Australia surpassed its optimal macroeconomic scale: Finding out with the aid of ‘benefit’ and ‘cost’ accounts and a sustainable net benefit index. Ecological Economics, 28, 213-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(98)00049-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(98)00049-4
- Linden, M. and Ray, D. (2017). Aggregation bias-correcting approach to the health–income relationship: Life expectancy and GDP per capita in 148 countries, 1970–2010. Economic Modelling, 61, 126-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.001
- Looney, R. (2008). The Musharraf Paradox: The Failure of an Economic Success Story. The Open Area Studies Journal, 1(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874914300801010001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1874914300801010001
- Marmot, M. (2005). Social determinants of health inequalities. The Lancet, 365(9464), 1099-1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71146-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)74234-3
- Morris, M.D. (1979). Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Pergamon, New York.
- Piketty, T. (2001). Les hauts revenus en France au XX eme siecle, Grasset. Retrived from https://www.lemonde.fr/savoirs-et-connaissances/article/2002/03/25/thomas-piketty-inegalites-et-redistribution-en-france-au-xxe-siecle_268257_3328.html
- Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, UK. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674369542 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674369542
- Ranis, G., Stewart, F. and Ramirez, A. (2000). Economic growth and human development. World Development, 28(2), 197-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00131-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00131-X
- Ringen, S. (2006). The possibility of politics: A study in the political economy of the welfare state. New Jersey USA: Transaction Publishers.
- Rodriguez-Pose, A. and Tselios, V. (2009). Education and income inequality in the regions of the European Union. Journal of Regional Science, 49(3), 411-437. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2008.00602.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2008.00602.x
- Sen, A. (1987). The Standard of Living, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
- Sen, A.K. (1976). Real national income. Review of Economic Studies, 43, 19-36. https://doi.org /10.2307/2296597 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2296597
- Stiglitz, J., Sen. A., Fitoussi, J.P. (2009). The Measurement of economic performance and social progress revisited-reflections and overview. Working paper of Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress (CMEPSP). Available at: http://www.stiglitz-sen-fitoussi.fr/docume nts/overview-eng.pd.
- Stiglitz, J.E. (2005). The Ethical Economist-A review of The Moral Consequences of Economic Growth by B.M. Friedman. Foreign Affairs.
- Stiglitz, J.E., Sen, A. and Fitoussi, J.P. (2010). Mismeasuring our lives: Why GDP doesn't add up. New York: The New Press.
- Streeten, P. (1982). First things first: Meeting basic needs in developing countries. Oxford University Press, New York.
- Streeten, P. (1994). Human development: Means and ends. The Bangladesh Development Studies, 21(4), 65-76.
- Tanoli, J.R. (2016). Comparison of Economic Growth under Democracy and Dictatorship : Comparing Musharraf Era to the Post 2007 Regimes, 1-10.
- UNDP. (1990). Human Development Report 1990. Oxford University Press, New York
- UNDP. (2017). Human Development Report 2017. Oxford University Press, New York.
- Usman, M. (2009). Socio-Economic Determinants of Poverty: A case of Pakistan. Master’s Thesis. Development and International Relations, Aalborg University, Denmark.
- Smith, A. (1776). An inquiry into the nature and causes of wealth of nations, W. Strahan and T. Cadell, London. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00043218
- Lucas, R. (1988). On The Mechanics of Economic Development. Journal of Monetary Economics, 22(1), 3-42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3932(88)90168-7
- Easterly, W. (2001b). The political economy of growth without development: a case study of Pakistan. Paper for the Analytical Narratives of Growth Project, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
- Stiglitz, J., Fitoussi, J. and Durand, M. (2018), Beyond GDP: Measuring what Counts for Economic and Social Performance, OECD Publishing, Paris DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264307292-en
- Fixler, D.J., Gindelsky, M. and Johnson, D. (2019). Improving the measure of the distribution of personal income, US Bureau of Economic Analysis working paper. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20191037
- Dasgupta, P. and Ray, D. (1987). Inequality as a Determinant of Malnutrition and Unemployment: Policy. The Economic Journal, 97(385), 177-188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2233329
- Easterly, W. (2001a). The Middle Class Consensus and Economic Development. Journal of Economic Growth, 6(4), 317-335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012786330095
- Gradstein, M and Justman, M. (2002). Education, Social Cohesion and Economic Growth. The American Economic Review, 92(4), 1192-1204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/00028280260344722
- Hirschman, A.O. and Rothschild, M. (1973). The Changing Tolerance for Income Inequality in the Course of Economic Development. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(4), 544-566. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1882024
- Alesina, A. and Perroti, R. (1994). The Political Economy of Growth: A Critical Survey of Recent Literature. The World Bank Economic Review, 8(3), 351-371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/8.3.351
- Alesina, A. and Rodrik, D. (1994). Distributive Politics of Economic Growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 109(2), 465-490. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2118470
- Persson, T. and Tabellini, G. (1994). Is inequality harmful for growth? The American Economic Review, 84(3), 600-621.
- Rawls, J. A. (1971). Theory of Justice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
- Roemer, J. E. (1993). A pragmatic theory of responsibility for the egalitarian planner. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 22(2), 146-166.
- Roemer, J. E. (1998a). Equality of opportunity. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674042872
- Roemer, J. E. (1998b). Theories of distributive justic. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Roemer, J. E. (2013). Economic development as opportunity equalization. The World Bank Economic Review, 28(2), 189-209. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lht023
- Roemer, J. E. and Trannoy, A. (2016). Equality of opportunity: Theory and measurement. Journal of Economic Literature, 54(4), 1288-1332. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20151206
- Chani, M.I., Jan, S.A., Pervaiz, Z. and Chaudhary, A.R. (2014). Human capital inequality and income inequality: Testing for causality. Qual Quant, 48, 149-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-012-9755-7
- Pervaiz, Z. and Akram, S. (2018). Estimating inequality of opportunities in Punjab (Pakistan): A non-parametric approach. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 12(1), 136-152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3213926
- Pervaiz, Z., Akram, S. and Jan, S.A. (2021). Social exclusion in Pakistan: an ethnographic and regional perspective. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-01-2021-0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-01-2021-0001
References
Ahluwalia, M.S. and Chenery, H. (1974). The economic framework, in Chenery, H. et al. (ed.). Redistribution with Growth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, London, 38-51.
Anand, S. and Harris, C.J. (1994). Choosing a welfare indicator. The American Economic Review, 84(2), 226-231.
Atkinson, A.B. (1970). On measurement of inequality. Journal of Economic Theory, 2, 244-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0531(70)90039-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0531(70)90039-6
Bentham, J. (1776). A Fragment on Government: Being an Examination of what is Delivered, on the Subject of Government in General, in the Introduction to Sir William Blackstone's Commentaries: with a Preface, in which is Given a Critique on the Work at Large (No. 2). T. Payne; P. Elmsly; and E. Brooke. https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00077301 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00077301
Bergson, A. (1938). A reformulation of certain aspects of welfare economics. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 52, 310-334. https://doi.org/10.2307/1881737 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1881737
Bor, J., Cohen, G.H. and Galea, S. (2017). Population health in an era of rising income inequality: USA, 1980–2015. The Lancet, 389, 1475-1490. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30571-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30571-8
Burns, J.H. (2005). Happiness and utility: Jeremy Bentham's equation. Utilitas, 17, 46-61. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953820804001396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953820804001396
Costanza, R., Hart, M., Posner, S., Talberth, J. (2009). Beyond GDP: The need for new measures of progress. Pardee Paper No. 4, Boston: Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future.
Gini, C. (1912). Variability and mutability. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 76(3), 326-327. https://doi.org/10.2307/2340052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2340052
Hatzius, J. (1997). Foreign direct investment, capital formation and labor costs: Evidence from Britain and Germany (London School of Economics Paper No. 336). London: Center for Economic Performance, London School of Economics.
Helliwell, J., Layard, R. and Sachs, J. (2017). World Happiness Report 2017, New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Network
Hicks, N. and Streeten, P. (1979). Indicators of development: The search for a basic needs yardstick. World Development 7, 567-580. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(79)90093-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(79)90093-7
Hussain, I. (1999). Institutions of restraint: The missing element in Pakistan’s governance. The Pakistan Development Review, 38(4), 511-536. https://doi.org/10.30541/v38i4Ipp.511-536 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30541/v38i4Ipp.511-536
Hussain, I., Khan, Z. and Rafiq, M., (2017). Compositional changes in public expenditure and economic growth: Time series evidence from Pakistan. Business and Economic Review, 9(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.22547/BER/9.1.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22547/BER/9.1.1
Jeffrey, K., Wheatley, H., Abdallah, S. (2016). The Happy Planet Index. A global index of sustainable wellbeing. London: New Economics.
Kaldor, Nicholas. (1939). Welfare propositions in economics and interpersonal comparisons of utility. Economic Journal, 49(145), 549-552. https://doi.org/10.2307/2224835 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2224835
Kalia, S. (2015). Human development in Pakistan and bureaucratic predicaments. International Journal of Public Administration, 38(3), 216-226. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2014.934840 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2014.934840
Klasen, S. (1994). Growth and well-being: Introducing distribution-weighted growth rates to re-evaluate U.S. post-war economic performance. Review of Income and Wealth, 40(3), 251-72. https://doi.org/10.1 111/j.1475-4991.1994.tb00068.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1994.tb00068.x
Koutsoyiannis, A. (1979). Modern Microeconomics (2nd ed.). Canada: Waterloo. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 9781349160778 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/9781349160778
Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. Review Literature and Arts of the Americas, 45(1), 1-28.
Lawn, P. and Sanders, R. (1999). Has Australia surpassed its optimal macroeconomic scale: Finding out with the aid of ‘benefit’ and ‘cost’ accounts and a sustainable net benefit index. Ecological Economics, 28, 213-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(98)00049-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(98)00049-4
Linden, M. and Ray, D. (2017). Aggregation bias-correcting approach to the health–income relationship: Life expectancy and GDP per capita in 148 countries, 1970–2010. Economic Modelling, 61, 126-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.001
Looney, R. (2008). The Musharraf Paradox: The Failure of an Economic Success Story. The Open Area Studies Journal, 1(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874914300801010001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1874914300801010001
Marmot, M. (2005). Social determinants of health inequalities. The Lancet, 365(9464), 1099-1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71146-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)74234-3
Morris, M.D. (1979). Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Pergamon, New York.
Piketty, T. (2001). Les hauts revenus en France au XX eme siecle, Grasset. Retrived from https://www.lemonde.fr/savoirs-et-connaissances/article/2002/03/25/thomas-piketty-inegalites-et-redistribution-en-france-au-xxe-siecle_268257_3328.html
Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, UK. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674369542 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674369542
Ranis, G., Stewart, F. and Ramirez, A. (2000). Economic growth and human development. World Development, 28(2), 197-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00131-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00131-X
Ringen, S. (2006). The possibility of politics: A study in the political economy of the welfare state. New Jersey USA: Transaction Publishers.
Rodriguez-Pose, A. and Tselios, V. (2009). Education and income inequality in the regions of the European Union. Journal of Regional Science, 49(3), 411-437. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2008.00602.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2008.00602.x
Sen, A. (1987). The Standard of Living, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Sen, A.K. (1976). Real national income. Review of Economic Studies, 43, 19-36. https://doi.org /10.2307/2296597 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2296597
Stiglitz, J., Sen. A., Fitoussi, J.P. (2009). The Measurement of economic performance and social progress revisited-reflections and overview. Working paper of Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress (CMEPSP). Available at: http://www.stiglitz-sen-fitoussi.fr/docume nts/overview-eng.pd.
Stiglitz, J.E. (2005). The Ethical Economist-A review of The Moral Consequences of Economic Growth by B.M. Friedman. Foreign Affairs.
Stiglitz, J.E., Sen, A. and Fitoussi, J.P. (2010). Mismeasuring our lives: Why GDP doesn't add up. New York: The New Press.
Streeten, P. (1982). First things first: Meeting basic needs in developing countries. Oxford University Press, New York.
Streeten, P. (1994). Human development: Means and ends. The Bangladesh Development Studies, 21(4), 65-76.
Tanoli, J.R. (2016). Comparison of Economic Growth under Democracy and Dictatorship : Comparing Musharraf Era to the Post 2007 Regimes, 1-10.
UNDP. (1990). Human Development Report 1990. Oxford University Press, New York
UNDP. (2017). Human Development Report 2017. Oxford University Press, New York.
Usman, M. (2009). Socio-Economic Determinants of Poverty: A case of Pakistan. Master’s Thesis. Development and International Relations, Aalborg University, Denmark.
Smith, A. (1776). An inquiry into the nature and causes of wealth of nations, W. Strahan and T. Cadell, London. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00043218
Lucas, R. (1988). On The Mechanics of Economic Development. Journal of Monetary Economics, 22(1), 3-42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3932(88)90168-7
Easterly, W. (2001b). The political economy of growth without development: a case study of Pakistan. Paper for the Analytical Narratives of Growth Project, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
Stiglitz, J., Fitoussi, J. and Durand, M. (2018), Beyond GDP: Measuring what Counts for Economic and Social Performance, OECD Publishing, Paris DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264307292-en
Fixler, D.J., Gindelsky, M. and Johnson, D. (2019). Improving the measure of the distribution of personal income, US Bureau of Economic Analysis working paper. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20191037
Dasgupta, P. and Ray, D. (1987). Inequality as a Determinant of Malnutrition and Unemployment: Policy. The Economic Journal, 97(385), 177-188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2233329
Easterly, W. (2001a). The Middle Class Consensus and Economic Development. Journal of Economic Growth, 6(4), 317-335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012786330095
Gradstein, M and Justman, M. (2002). Education, Social Cohesion and Economic Growth. The American Economic Review, 92(4), 1192-1204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/00028280260344722
Hirschman, A.O. and Rothschild, M. (1973). The Changing Tolerance for Income Inequality in the Course of Economic Development. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(4), 544-566. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1882024
Alesina, A. and Perroti, R. (1994). The Political Economy of Growth: A Critical Survey of Recent Literature. The World Bank Economic Review, 8(3), 351-371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/8.3.351
Alesina, A. and Rodrik, D. (1994). Distributive Politics of Economic Growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 109(2), 465-490. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2118470
Persson, T. and Tabellini, G. (1994). Is inequality harmful for growth? The American Economic Review, 84(3), 600-621.
Rawls, J. A. (1971). Theory of Justice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Roemer, J. E. (1993). A pragmatic theory of responsibility for the egalitarian planner. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 22(2), 146-166.
Roemer, J. E. (1998a). Equality of opportunity. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674042872
Roemer, J. E. (1998b). Theories of distributive justic. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Roemer, J. E. (2013). Economic development as opportunity equalization. The World Bank Economic Review, 28(2), 189-209. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lht023
Roemer, J. E. and Trannoy, A. (2016). Equality of opportunity: Theory and measurement. Journal of Economic Literature, 54(4), 1288-1332. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20151206
Chani, M.I., Jan, S.A., Pervaiz, Z. and Chaudhary, A.R. (2014). Human capital inequality and income inequality: Testing for causality. Qual Quant, 48, 149-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-012-9755-7
Pervaiz, Z. and Akram, S. (2018). Estimating inequality of opportunities in Punjab (Pakistan): A non-parametric approach. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 12(1), 136-152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3213926
Pervaiz, Z., Akram, S. and Jan, S.A. (2021). Social exclusion in Pakistan: an ethnographic and regional perspective. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-01-2021-0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-01-2021-0001