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EXPLORING THE SOCIOCULTURAL IMPEDIMENTS TO FEMALE IN GETTING HIGHER EDUCATION IN PUKHTUN SOCIETY
Corresponding Author(s) : Younas Khan
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study was designed to explore the socio-cultural impediments to females getting higher education in pakhtun society.
Methodology: A cross-sectional quantitative research method was conducted in district Dir lower Pakistan. A well-structured interviewed schedule (encompassing all the study attributes) was used for primary data collection from 375 female respondents after the pre-test procedure. The data were analyzed through descriptive statistics and inferential statistics(x2 test) to ascertain the association between dependent (female higher education) and independent (sociocultural impediments) variables.
Principal Findings: Based on the study results, a significant association (P=0.000) was found between the dependent variable and sociocultural attributes; the prevalence of patriarchal norms (P=0.00), preferences of early marriages (P=0.00), fear of sexual harassment (P=0.00), parents carelessness (P=0.00), Parda (veiling for women and protecting their honour) and lack of decision-making power (P=0.00) impedes women from getting their higher education.
Applications of this study: Early marriage is a symbol of female exploitation under the man-made unwritten codes of conduct (Pukhtoonwali) which, should be banned through formal (legislation) and informal agencies (familial and religious) level; with a collaboration of educating female to ensure dethroning the partisan character in the form of patriarchal norms, which women faced since the dawn of the history. A slogan or any other campaign through mass media and print media is the order of the day. The government should ensure to play their role on macro and micro level to eliminate the negative stigmatization of women generally while in getting higher education particularly.
Novelty/Originality of this study: This study is an attempt to insight into the socio-cultural barriers to female attainment of higher education in pukhtun society through perceptional based study along with quantitative research designs to measure the association between the variables as mentioned above with an amalgamation of an addition to the existing stock of knowledge in the field of sociology of education.
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- Chan, D. K., Chow, S. Y., Lam, C. B., & Cheung, S. F. (2008). Examining the job-related, psychological and physical outcomes of workplace sexual harassment: A meta-analytic review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 362-376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00451.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00451.x
- Carli, L. L. (1990). Gender, language, and influence. Journal of personality and social psychology, 59(5), 941. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.941 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.941
- DFID Human Development Center. (2012). Helpdesk Report: Violence and Sexual Abuse in Schools in Afghanistan and Pakistan. https://www.heart-resources.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Violence-and-Abuse-in-Schools-November-20121.pdf
- Fatima, G. (2011). Female Education as a Determinant of Economic Growth: The Case Study of Pakistan. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 4(11), 15-22. https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v4i11.6485 DOI: https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v4i11.6485
- Fnais, N., Soobiah, C., Chen, M. H., Lillie, E., Perrier, L., Tashkhandi, M., ... & Tricco, A. C. (2014). Harassment and discrimination in medical training: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Academic Medicine, 89(5), 817-827. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000200
- Farid, T., Anwar, M. N., Iqbal, S., Jan, M., & Khattak, I. (2014). Socio-economic Problems Faced By Rural Women in Getting Higher Education (A Case Study of District Karak). International Asian Research Journal, 2(4), 31-40.
- Hussain, I., Ahmed, M., Ahmad, S., Suleman, Q., & Khalid, N. (2012). A Study to Investigate the Availability of Educational Facilities at the Secondary School Level in District Karak. Language in India, 12(10).
- Henning, M. A., Zhou, C., Adams, P., Moir, F., Hobson, J., Hallett, C., & Webster, C. S. (2017). Workplace harassment among staff in higher education: a systematic review. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(4), 521-539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9499-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9499-0
- Jalal-ud-Din, M., & Khan, M. (2008). Socio-economic and cultural constraints of women in Pakistan with special reference to Mardan district, NWFP province. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 24(3), 485-493.
- Khan, S. (2007). Gender Issues in Higher Education in Pakistan, Islamabad.
- Khan, H. A. M. A. D., Ali, A. K. H. T. A. R., Khan, R., & Zia, Y. A. (2013). Social constraints to female higher education in Pakhtoon society. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 2(4), 25-31.
- Khan. Y., Ullah. A., Din. F., Ahmad. ,S and Jaffar.T. (2019a). Economic constraints to female higher education in Pukhtun society. International Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Allied Sciences, 8(5), 981-991. https://doi.org/10.31032/IJBPAS/2019/8.5.4715 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31032/IJBPAS/2019/8.5.4715
- Khan, Y., Shah, M., Ud-din, F., Ullah, Z., & Rehan, S. (2018). Familial Impediments to Women Political Status in Pukhtun Society. Anthropol, 6(208), 2332-0915. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0915.1000208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0915.1000208
- Khan, Y., Shah, M., Ud-din, F., Khan, N., Ullah A., Rehan., and Ullah, Z. (2019b). Excluding women from political institution through educational deprivation. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 3(1), 237-242. Retrieved from https://www.rsisinternational.org/virtual-library/papers/excluding-womens-from-political-institution-through-educational-deprivation/
- Khatak, G. (n.d.). Attitudes of Parents Towards Contemporary Female Higher Education. Higher Education, Lifelong Learning and Social Inclusion, retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED567083.pdf
- McClelland, G. T., Horne, M., Dearnley, C., Raynsford, J., & Irving, D. (2015). Experiences and outcomes among undergraduate health professional higher education students with protected characteristics: disability, gender, and ethnicity. Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, 6(1), 38-64. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpoc.21168 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jpoc.21168
- Maslak, M. A., & Singhal, G. (2008). The identity of educated women in India: confluence or divergence?. Gender and Education, 20(5), 481-493. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701829961 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701829961
- Maqsood, F., Maqsood, S., & Raza, H. (2012). Getting higher education: Is it really a challenge for females in Pakistan?. Academic Research International, 2(3), 352. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.1063.598&rep=rep1&type=pdf
- Murphy Graham, E. (2008). Opening the black box: Women’s empowerment and innovative secondary education in Honduras. Gender and Education, 20(1), 31-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701650623 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701650623
- Nayak. S., and Nair, J. (2005). Women Empowerment In India. Jaipur: Pointer Computers.
- Noreen, G., & Khalid, H. (2012). Gender empowerment through women’s higher education: Opportunities and possibilities. Journal of Research and Reflections in Education, 6(1), 50-60.
- Naz, A., & Ahmad, W. (2012). Sociocultural impediments to women political empowerment in Pakhtun society. Academic Research International, 3(1), 163.
- Ram, D. S. (Ed.). (2004). Women: Emergence of New Ideology. Commonwealth.
- Rizvi, F. (1980). Background of vocational education for girls. The national conference on critical issues concerning women in education, Women Div. Govt. of Pakistan, Islamabad: 4
- Sen, A. (2001). Improving gender equality in Pakistan: Small steps to date, large strides ahead. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051-1146639350561/CGA-Chapter-1pdf
- Shah, S., & Sobehart, H. (2008). Women and educational leadership in a Muslim society. Women leading education across the continents: Sharing the spirit, fanning the flame, 344-381.
- Scantlebury, K., Kahle, J. B., & Martin, S. N. (Eds.). (2010). Re-visioning Science Education from Feminist Perspectives: Challenges, Choices, and Careers, 3. Sense Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789460910869 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789460910869
- Shaukat, S., & Pell, A. W. (2015). Personal and social problems faced by women in higher education. FWU Journal of Social Sciences, 9(2), 101.
- Tembon, M. M., & Fort, L. (Eds.). (2008). Girl's education in the 21st century: Gender equality, empowerment and growth. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7474-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7474-0
- Thomas, D. M., Love, K. M., Roan-Belle, C., Tyler, K. M., Brown, C. L., & Garriott, P. O. (2009). Self-efficacy, motivation, and academic adjustment among African American women attending institutions of higher education. The Journal of Negro Education, 159-171.
- UNICEF. (2005). Early Marriage: A harmful traditional practice. New York: United Nations.
- Usha, S., & Sharma, M.B.(2001). Women and higher educationâ€. New Delhi: Commonwealth Publishers.
- Ullah, S., Javed, W., Rasheed, B., Jamal, Q., Aziz, F.,. (2014). Assessment of groundwater quality of district Dir Lower Pakistan. International Journal of biosciences, 4 (8), 248-255. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261835814_Assessment_of_groundwater_quality_of_district_Dir_Lower_Pakistan DOI: https://doi.org/10.12692/ijb/4.8.248-255
- UN Women. (2019). Progress of the World’s Women 2019–2020. https://data.unwomen.org/progress-of-the-worlds-women
- Velkoff, V. A. (1998). Women of the world: Women’s education in India. US Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, International Programs Center WID/98-1.
- Voth Schrag, R. J. (2017). Campus-based sexual assault and dating violence: A review of study contexts and participants. Affiliate, 32(1), 67-80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109916644644 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109916644644
- Veer, A. (2004). Modern Education for New Generation. New Delhi: Anmol Publications.
- Willness, C. R., Steel, P., & Lee, K. (2007). A metaâ€analysis of the antecedents and consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Personnel Psychology, 60(1), 127-162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00067.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00067.x
References
Chan, D. K., Chow, S. Y., Lam, C. B., & Cheung, S. F. (2008). Examining the job-related, psychological and physical outcomes of workplace sexual harassment: A meta-analytic review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 362-376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00451.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00451.x
Carli, L. L. (1990). Gender, language, and influence. Journal of personality and social psychology, 59(5), 941. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.941 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.941
DFID Human Development Center. (2012). Helpdesk Report: Violence and Sexual Abuse in Schools in Afghanistan and Pakistan. https://www.heart-resources.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Violence-and-Abuse-in-Schools-November-20121.pdf
Fatima, G. (2011). Female Education as a Determinant of Economic Growth: The Case Study of Pakistan. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 4(11), 15-22. https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v4i11.6485 DOI: https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v4i11.6485
Fnais, N., Soobiah, C., Chen, M. H., Lillie, E., Perrier, L., Tashkhandi, M., ... & Tricco, A. C. (2014). Harassment and discrimination in medical training: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Academic Medicine, 89(5), 817-827. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000200
Farid, T., Anwar, M. N., Iqbal, S., Jan, M., & Khattak, I. (2014). Socio-economic Problems Faced By Rural Women in Getting Higher Education (A Case Study of District Karak). International Asian Research Journal, 2(4), 31-40.
Hussain, I., Ahmed, M., Ahmad, S., Suleman, Q., & Khalid, N. (2012). A Study to Investigate the Availability of Educational Facilities at the Secondary School Level in District Karak. Language in India, 12(10).
Henning, M. A., Zhou, C., Adams, P., Moir, F., Hobson, J., Hallett, C., & Webster, C. S. (2017). Workplace harassment among staff in higher education: a systematic review. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(4), 521-539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9499-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9499-0
Jalal-ud-Din, M., & Khan, M. (2008). Socio-economic and cultural constraints of women in Pakistan with special reference to Mardan district, NWFP province. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 24(3), 485-493.
Khan, S. (2007). Gender Issues in Higher Education in Pakistan, Islamabad.
Khan, H. A. M. A. D., Ali, A. K. H. T. A. R., Khan, R., & Zia, Y. A. (2013). Social constraints to female higher education in Pakhtoon society. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 2(4), 25-31.
Khan. Y., Ullah. A., Din. F., Ahmad. ,S and Jaffar.T. (2019a). Economic constraints to female higher education in Pukhtun society. International Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Allied Sciences, 8(5), 981-991. https://doi.org/10.31032/IJBPAS/2019/8.5.4715 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31032/IJBPAS/2019/8.5.4715
Khan, Y., Shah, M., Ud-din, F., Ullah, Z., & Rehan, S. (2018). Familial Impediments to Women Political Status in Pukhtun Society. Anthropol, 6(208), 2332-0915. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0915.1000208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0915.1000208
Khan, Y., Shah, M., Ud-din, F., Khan, N., Ullah A., Rehan., and Ullah, Z. (2019b). Excluding women from political institution through educational deprivation. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 3(1), 237-242. Retrieved from https://www.rsisinternational.org/virtual-library/papers/excluding-womens-from-political-institution-through-educational-deprivation/
Khatak, G. (n.d.). Attitudes of Parents Towards Contemporary Female Higher Education. Higher Education, Lifelong Learning and Social Inclusion, retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED567083.pdf
McClelland, G. T., Horne, M., Dearnley, C., Raynsford, J., & Irving, D. (2015). Experiences and outcomes among undergraduate health professional higher education students with protected characteristics: disability, gender, and ethnicity. Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, 6(1), 38-64. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpoc.21168 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jpoc.21168
Maslak, M. A., & Singhal, G. (2008). The identity of educated women in India: confluence or divergence?. Gender and Education, 20(5), 481-493. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701829961 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701829961
Maqsood, F., Maqsood, S., & Raza, H. (2012). Getting higher education: Is it really a challenge for females in Pakistan?. Academic Research International, 2(3), 352. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.1063.598&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Murphy Graham, E. (2008). Opening the black box: Women’s empowerment and innovative secondary education in Honduras. Gender and Education, 20(1), 31-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701650623 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701650623
Nayak. S., and Nair, J. (2005). Women Empowerment In India. Jaipur: Pointer Computers.
Noreen, G., & Khalid, H. (2012). Gender empowerment through women’s higher education: Opportunities and possibilities. Journal of Research and Reflections in Education, 6(1), 50-60.
Naz, A., & Ahmad, W. (2012). Sociocultural impediments to women political empowerment in Pakhtun society. Academic Research International, 3(1), 163.
Ram, D. S. (Ed.). (2004). Women: Emergence of New Ideology. Commonwealth.
Rizvi, F. (1980). Background of vocational education for girls. The national conference on critical issues concerning women in education, Women Div. Govt. of Pakistan, Islamabad: 4
Sen, A. (2001). Improving gender equality in Pakistan: Small steps to date, large strides ahead. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051-1146639350561/CGA-Chapter-1pdf
Shah, S., & Sobehart, H. (2008). Women and educational leadership in a Muslim society. Women leading education across the continents: Sharing the spirit, fanning the flame, 344-381.
Scantlebury, K., Kahle, J. B., & Martin, S. N. (Eds.). (2010). Re-visioning Science Education from Feminist Perspectives: Challenges, Choices, and Careers, 3. Sense Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789460910869 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789460910869
Shaukat, S., & Pell, A. W. (2015). Personal and social problems faced by women in higher education. FWU Journal of Social Sciences, 9(2), 101.
Tembon, M. M., & Fort, L. (Eds.). (2008). Girl's education in the 21st century: Gender equality, empowerment and growth. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7474-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7474-0
Thomas, D. M., Love, K. M., Roan-Belle, C., Tyler, K. M., Brown, C. L., & Garriott, P. O. (2009). Self-efficacy, motivation, and academic adjustment among African American women attending institutions of higher education. The Journal of Negro Education, 159-171.
UNICEF. (2005). Early Marriage: A harmful traditional practice. New York: United Nations.
Usha, S., & Sharma, M.B.(2001). Women and higher educationâ€. New Delhi: Commonwealth Publishers.
Ullah, S., Javed, W., Rasheed, B., Jamal, Q., Aziz, F.,. (2014). Assessment of groundwater quality of district Dir Lower Pakistan. International Journal of biosciences, 4 (8), 248-255. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261835814_Assessment_of_groundwater_quality_of_district_Dir_Lower_Pakistan DOI: https://doi.org/10.12692/ijb/4.8.248-255
UN Women. (2019). Progress of the World’s Women 2019–2020. https://data.unwomen.org/progress-of-the-worlds-women
Velkoff, V. A. (1998). Women of the world: Women’s education in India. US Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, International Programs Center WID/98-1.
Voth Schrag, R. J. (2017). Campus-based sexual assault and dating violence: A review of study contexts and participants. Affiliate, 32(1), 67-80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109916644644 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109916644644
Veer, A. (2004). Modern Education for New Generation. New Delhi: Anmol Publications.
Willness, C. R., Steel, P., & Lee, K. (2007). A metaâ€analysis of the antecedents and consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Personnel Psychology, 60(1), 127-162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00067.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00067.x