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THE GENDER-BASED DIFFERENCE IN THE USE OF SPEECH ACTS OF REFUSAL: A STUDY OF THE KHOWAR LANGUAGE
Corresponding Author(s) : Abdul Saeed
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: Language, culture, and gender affect the ways one refuses an offer, suggestion, request, or invitation. Moreover, what we say and how we say may change the contextual meaning. Therefore, a study was conducted to examine the use of speech acts of refusal by the Khowar language speakers to know whether there is any gender difference.
Methodology: The undergraduate level students, aging between 15 and 25, participated in the study. An open-ended questionnaire was used for data collection. The questionnaire contained four hypothetical situations and each situation required the use of speech acts of refusal by the participants. A refusal classification format devised by Beebe (1990) was used to analyse the data.
Main Findings: The findings showed that both males and females used almost similar refusal strategies in all four situations. Direct and indirect refusal speech acts with pre-and post-refusal strategies were used in nearly the same quantity. The study also revealed that language, culture, and social status did not play an important role in realising refusal strategies.
Application of the study: The study will help linguists, language teachers, and anthropologists to understand the nature of male and female Khowar language speakers. It will also add valuable literature on the use of language and gender differences.
The originality of the study: The study is significant being the first of its kind that addressed the gender difference and language use in Khowar language speakers. The study is also vital as it will preserve a minor language spoken in one of the remotest areas of Pakistan.
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- Al-Zumor, A. (2003). A pragmatic analysis of speech acts as produced by native speakers of Arabic. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Aligarh Muslim University. http://ir.amu.ac.in/id/eprint/3078
- Ang, R. P., & Kuo, E. C. (2003). Effects of gender and individualism-collectivism on directness of refusal. South Pacific Journal of Psychology, 14, 76–80. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0257543400000262 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0257543400000262
- Austin, J. L. (1975). How to do things with words. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acp rof:oso/9780198245537.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198245537.001.0001
- Baker, P. (2013). Introduction: Virtual special issue of gender and language on corpus approaches. Gender and Language, 1(1), 4-22. https://doi.org/10.1558/8psxqda5wh3d DOI: https://doi.org/10.1558/8psxqda5wh3d
- Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Hartford, B. S. (1993). Learning the rules of academic talk: A longitudinal study of pragmatic change. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(3), 279–304. https://doi.org/10.1017/S 0272263100012122 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100012122
- Beebe, L. M., Takahashi, T., & Uliss-Weltz, R. (1990). Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. In E. S. Andersan. and S. D. Krashen (Ed.), Developing communicative competence in a second language (pp. 55–73). Newbury House Publishers.
- Blum-Kulka, S. (1982). Learning how to say what you mean in a second language: A cross-cultural study of Hebrew and English. Applied Linguistics, 3(1), 29–59. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/3.1.29 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/3.1.29
- Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813085
- Chen, X., Ye, L., & Zhang, Y. (1995). Refusing in Chinese. In G. Kasper (Ed.), Pragmatics of Chinese as native and target language (pp. 119–163). University of Hawaii Press.
- Dong J. Y (2014). Study on gender differences in language under the sociolinguistics. Canadian Social Science, 10(3), 92–96.
- Eckert, P. (2019). The limits of meaning: Social indexicality, variation, and the cline of interiority. Language, 95(4), 751–776. https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2019.0072 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2019.0072
- Eslami, Z. R. (2010). How to develop appropriate refusal strategies. In A. Martinez Flor, Uso Juan, E. (Ed), Speech act performance: Theoretical, empirical and methodological issues (pp. 217–236). John Benjamins Amsterdam/Philadelphia. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.26.13esl DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.26.13esl
- Farnia, M., & Wu, X. (2012). An intercultural communication study of Chinese and Malaysian university students’ refusal to invitation. International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(1), 162–176. https://doi.org/10.55 39/ijel.v2n1p162 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v2n1p162
- Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2006). Linguistic politeness in Mexico: Refusal strategies among male speakers of Mexican Spanish. Journal of Pragmatics, 38(12), 2158–2187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.05.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.05.004
- Gire, J. T., & Carment, D. W. (1993). Dealing with disputes: The influence of individualism-collectivism. The Journal of Social Psychology, 133(1), 81–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1993.9712121 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1993.9712121
- Giyoto, G., Anggraini, N., Inderasari, E., & Purnomo, L. A. (2020). How does "To what gender and status one talks" govern the speaker's strategy in keeping on their conversation? Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 16(1), 166–184. https://doi.org/10.17263/jlls.712691 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17263/jlls.712691
- Holtgraves, T. (1997). Styles of language use: Individual and cultural variability in conversational indirectness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 624–637. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.624 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.624
- Houck, N., & Gass, S. M. (2011). Interlanguage refusals: A cross-cultural study of Japanese-English. Walter de Gruyter.
- Izadi, A., & Zilaie, F. (2015). Refusal strategies in Persian. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 25(2), 246–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12065 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12065
- Kinginger, C., & G. Schauer (2011). Interlanguage pragmatic development: The study abroad context. Applied Linguistics, 32(5), 572–574. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amr033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amr033
- Maharani, S., Mujiyanto, J., & Warsono, W. (2020). The Relations between male and female participants in using assertive speech acts for interactions in The Ellen DeGeneres Show. English Education Journal, 10(2), 234–241.
- Parvaresh, H. R., Bidaki, T., & Farahani, A. A. K. (2014). Refusal strategies of Iranian EFL learners: The role of sex, age, education levels, and politeness. International Journal of Education and Applied Sciences, 1(3), 121–128.
- Rahmawati, L. (2014). Gender differences in indirect asking for information in Hitam Putih and Sarah Sechan Talk Shows. Jurnal Ilmiah Mahasiswa FIB, 4(8).
- Sachs, J. (1987). Preschool boys’ and girls’ language use in pretend play. In S. U. Philips, S. Steele, & C. Tanz (Ed.), Language, gender, and sex in comparative perspective (pp. 178–188). Cambridge University Press Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511621918.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511621918.009
- Sadeghi, K., & Savojbolaghchilar, S. (2011). A comparative study of refusal strategies used by Iranians and Americans. International Journal of Academic Research, 3(2), 601–606.
- Sahragard, R., & Javanmardi, F. (2011). English speech act realization of 'Refusals' among Iranian EFL learners. Cross-Cultural Communication, 7(2), 181–198.
- Sattar, H. Q. A., Lah, S. C., & Suleiman, R. R. R. (2010). A study on strategies used in Iraqi Arabic to refuse suggestions. The International Journal of Language Society and Culture, 30, 81–95.
- Searle, J. R. (1975). Indirect speech acts. In P. Cole & J. Morgan (Ed.), Syntax and Semantics: speech acts (pp. 59–82). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_004
- Strong, J., Mathews, T., Sussex, R., New, F., Hoey, S., & Mitchell, G. (2009). Pain language and gender differences when describing a past pain event. PAIN, 145(1–2), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.p ain.2009.05.018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2009.05.018
- Wolfson, N. (1989). Perspectives: Sociolinguistics and TESOL. Newbury House Publishers.
- Yamagashira, H. (2001). Pragmatic transfer in Japanese ESL refusals. Kagoshima Immaculate Heart College. English Department, 31, 259–275. http://id.nii.ac.jp/1158/00000531
- Yang, J. (2008). How to say 'no' in Chinese: A pragmatic study of refusal strategies in five TV series. Proceedings of the 20th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics, 2, 1041–1058.
References
Al-Zumor, A. (2003). A pragmatic analysis of speech acts as produced by native speakers of Arabic. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Aligarh Muslim University. http://ir.amu.ac.in/id/eprint/3078
Ang, R. P., & Kuo, E. C. (2003). Effects of gender and individualism-collectivism on directness of refusal. South Pacific Journal of Psychology, 14, 76–80. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0257543400000262 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0257543400000262
Austin, J. L. (1975). How to do things with words. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acp rof:oso/9780198245537.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198245537.001.0001
Baker, P. (2013). Introduction: Virtual special issue of gender and language on corpus approaches. Gender and Language, 1(1), 4-22. https://doi.org/10.1558/8psxqda5wh3d DOI: https://doi.org/10.1558/8psxqda5wh3d
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Hartford, B. S. (1993). Learning the rules of academic talk: A longitudinal study of pragmatic change. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(3), 279–304. https://doi.org/10.1017/S 0272263100012122 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100012122
Beebe, L. M., Takahashi, T., & Uliss-Weltz, R. (1990). Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. In E. S. Andersan. and S. D. Krashen (Ed.), Developing communicative competence in a second language (pp. 55–73). Newbury House Publishers.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1982). Learning how to say what you mean in a second language: A cross-cultural study of Hebrew and English. Applied Linguistics, 3(1), 29–59. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/3.1.29 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/3.1.29
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813085
Chen, X., Ye, L., & Zhang, Y. (1995). Refusing in Chinese. In G. Kasper (Ed.), Pragmatics of Chinese as native and target language (pp. 119–163). University of Hawaii Press.
Dong J. Y (2014). Study on gender differences in language under the sociolinguistics. Canadian Social Science, 10(3), 92–96.
Eckert, P. (2019). The limits of meaning: Social indexicality, variation, and the cline of interiority. Language, 95(4), 751–776. https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2019.0072 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2019.0072
Eslami, Z. R. (2010). How to develop appropriate refusal strategies. In A. Martinez Flor, Uso Juan, E. (Ed), Speech act performance: Theoretical, empirical and methodological issues (pp. 217–236). John Benjamins Amsterdam/Philadelphia. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.26.13esl DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.26.13esl
Farnia, M., & Wu, X. (2012). An intercultural communication study of Chinese and Malaysian university students’ refusal to invitation. International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(1), 162–176. https://doi.org/10.55 39/ijel.v2n1p162 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v2n1p162
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2006). Linguistic politeness in Mexico: Refusal strategies among male speakers of Mexican Spanish. Journal of Pragmatics, 38(12), 2158–2187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.05.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.05.004
Gire, J. T., & Carment, D. W. (1993). Dealing with disputes: The influence of individualism-collectivism. The Journal of Social Psychology, 133(1), 81–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1993.9712121 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1993.9712121
Giyoto, G., Anggraini, N., Inderasari, E., & Purnomo, L. A. (2020). How does "To what gender and status one talks" govern the speaker's strategy in keeping on their conversation? Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 16(1), 166–184. https://doi.org/10.17263/jlls.712691 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17263/jlls.712691
Holtgraves, T. (1997). Styles of language use: Individual and cultural variability in conversational indirectness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 624–637. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.624 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.624
Houck, N., & Gass, S. M. (2011). Interlanguage refusals: A cross-cultural study of Japanese-English. Walter de Gruyter.
Izadi, A., & Zilaie, F. (2015). Refusal strategies in Persian. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 25(2), 246–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12065 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12065
Kinginger, C., & G. Schauer (2011). Interlanguage pragmatic development: The study abroad context. Applied Linguistics, 32(5), 572–574. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amr033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amr033
Maharani, S., Mujiyanto, J., & Warsono, W. (2020). The Relations between male and female participants in using assertive speech acts for interactions in The Ellen DeGeneres Show. English Education Journal, 10(2), 234–241.
Parvaresh, H. R., Bidaki, T., & Farahani, A. A. K. (2014). Refusal strategies of Iranian EFL learners: The role of sex, age, education levels, and politeness. International Journal of Education and Applied Sciences, 1(3), 121–128.
Rahmawati, L. (2014). Gender differences in indirect asking for information in Hitam Putih and Sarah Sechan Talk Shows. Jurnal Ilmiah Mahasiswa FIB, 4(8).
Sachs, J. (1987). Preschool boys’ and girls’ language use in pretend play. In S. U. Philips, S. Steele, & C. Tanz (Ed.), Language, gender, and sex in comparative perspective (pp. 178–188). Cambridge University Press Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511621918.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511621918.009
Sadeghi, K., & Savojbolaghchilar, S. (2011). A comparative study of refusal strategies used by Iranians and Americans. International Journal of Academic Research, 3(2), 601–606.
Sahragard, R., & Javanmardi, F. (2011). English speech act realization of 'Refusals' among Iranian EFL learners. Cross-Cultural Communication, 7(2), 181–198.
Sattar, H. Q. A., Lah, S. C., & Suleiman, R. R. R. (2010). A study on strategies used in Iraqi Arabic to refuse suggestions. The International Journal of Language Society and Culture, 30, 81–95.
Searle, J. R. (1975). Indirect speech acts. In P. Cole & J. Morgan (Ed.), Syntax and Semantics: speech acts (pp. 59–82). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_004
Strong, J., Mathews, T., Sussex, R., New, F., Hoey, S., & Mitchell, G. (2009). Pain language and gender differences when describing a past pain event. PAIN, 145(1–2), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.p ain.2009.05.018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2009.05.018
Wolfson, N. (1989). Perspectives: Sociolinguistics and TESOL. Newbury House Publishers.
Yamagashira, H. (2001). Pragmatic transfer in Japanese ESL refusals. Kagoshima Immaculate Heart College. English Department, 31, 259–275. http://id.nii.ac.jp/1158/00000531
Yang, J. (2008). How to say 'no' in Chinese: A pragmatic study of refusal strategies in five TV series. Proceedings of the 20th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics, 2, 1041–1058.