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POLITICAL CRIME IN THE IRANIAN PENAL SYSTEM AND THE POSITION OF CONSTITUTIONAL CIVIL LIBERTIES IN CRIMINALIZING POLITICAL CRIME
Corresponding Author(s) : Abdolvahid Zahedi
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose: This study aims to analyze political crime in the Iranian penal system and the place of civil, constitutional freedoms in the criminalization of political crime.
Methodology: In this study, we have tried to study articles and related research in this field and analyze the results of each to make a proper conclusion about the relationship between the Iranian systems in dealing with political crimes. Therefore, the only tools used in this study are documents related to political crimes at the international level.
Main findings: Political Crime Law enacted in 2016, despite the basic forms of extensive discretion and lack of specific criteria for the judicial authority in determining whether a crime is political or non-political, practically made this law ineffective, regardless of the problems mentioned.
Application of the study: Since the commencement of the country, political wrongdoing has been viewed as wrongdoing against the public authority. Therefore, the results of this study can be very effective in improving the performance of governments in preventing possible crimes against governments.
Novelty/Originality: Given the multiplicity of political crimes in our country, as well as the complexities involved in the case of political crimes, it seems that in the history of our criminal law, there has been a will to legislate and determine the exact causes of political crime, and governments in most historical periods, they have made great efforts to identify political criminals. The novelty of this research lies in investigating the effect of political crimes on legal confusion in legislating political offenses.
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- Ahangar, A. A., Sultani, A. A., & Khoshkhoonejad, A. (2014). A critical study of news discourse: Iran’s tenth presidential election of 2009. In Keyhan and Etemad newspapers. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 6(1), 151-169.
- Alesina, A., & Perotti, R. (1996). Income distribution, political instability, and investment. European economic review, 40(6), 1203-1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(95)00030-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(95)00030-5
- Amini, A., & Ramazi, H. (2016). Application of electrical resistivity imaging for engineering site investigation. A case study on prospective hospital site, Varamin, Iran. Acta Geophysica, 64(6), 2200-2213. https://doi.o rg/10.1515/acgeo-2016-0100 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/acgeo-2016-0100
- Arzhang, A., Fadakar Davarani, A., & Nozari Ferdowsieh, M. (2018). The Jurisprudential Foundations of Iran's Criminal Policy concerning the Spread of Prostitution Covered in the 2013 Penal Code. Ius Humani, Revista de Derecho, 7, 53. https://doi.org/10.31207/ih.v7i0.184 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31207/ih.v7i0.184
- Bakhash, S. (1989). The politics of land, law, and social justice in Iran. Middle East Journal, 43(2), 186-201.
- Bendor, A. L., & Dancig-Rosenberg, H. (2016). Unconstitutional Criminalization. New Criminal Law Review, 19(2), 171-207. https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2016.19.2.171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2016.19.2.171
- Berdejo, C., & Yuchtman, N. (2013). Crime, punishment, and politics: an analysis of political cycles in criminal sentencing. Review of Economics and Statistics, 95(3), 741-756. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00296 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00296
- Blakeslee, D. S., & Fishman, R. (2018). Weather shocks, agriculture, and crime evidence from India. Journal of Human Resources, 53(3), 750-782. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.53.3.0715-7234R1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.53.3.0715-7234R1
- Daniele, G. (2019). Strike one to educate one hundred: Organized crime, political selection and politicians’ ability. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 159, 650-662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jebo.2017.07.021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2017.07.021
- Daniel, E. L. (2012). The history of Iran. ABC-CLIO.
- Doran, M. C. (2017). The hidden face of violence in Latin America: assessing the criminalization of protest in comparative perspective. Latin American Perspectives, 44(5), 183-206. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0094582X17719258 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X17719258
- Dvoskin, J. A., Knoll, J. L., & Silva, M. (2020). A brief history of the criminalization of mental illness. CNS spectrums, 25(5), 638-650. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920000103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920000103
- Gehring, K., Kauffeldt, T. F., & Vadlamannati, K. C. (2019). Crime, incentives and political effort: Evidence from India. European Journal of Political Economy, 59, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.12.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.12.005
- Giddens, A., & Griffiths, S. (2006). Sociology. Polity Press.
- Hagan, F. E. (1997). Political crime: Ideology and criminality. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
- KhosraviNik, M. (2015). Macro and micro legitimation in discourse on Iran’s nuclear programme: The case of Iranian national newspaper Kayhan. Discourse & Society, 26(1), 52-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/095 7926514541345 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926514541345
- Kuczur, T. (2020). Political Crime as a Legal and Criminal Category. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Iuridica, 92(1), 147-171. https://doi.org/10.18778/0208-6069.92.11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18778/0208-6069.92.11
- Martin, G. (2016). Criminalizing dissent: Social movements, public order policing and the erosion of protest rights. In The Routledge international handbook of criminology and human rights (pp. 306-316). Routledge.
- Rankin, S. (2020). Civilly Criminalizing Homelessness. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review (CR-CL), Forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3677531 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3677531
- Riazi, A. (2005). The four language stages in the history of Iran. Decolonisation, globalisation: Language-in-education policy and practice, 100-116. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853598265-008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853598265-008
- Riyadi, B. S., & Mustofa, M. (2020). Corruption Culture on Managing Natural Resources: The Case Political Crime "Papa asking Stock of PT. Freeport Indonesia." International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 9, 26-36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2020.09.04
- Robinson, O. F., & Robinson, C. F. (1995). The criminal law of ancient Rome (pp. 32-35). London: Duckworth.
- Ross, J. I. (2012). An introduction to political crime. Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t898f9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t898f9
- Ruggiero, V. (2017). Political violence and crime. In: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.371 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.371
- Sandrini, P. (1999). Legal terminology. Some aspects for a new methodology. HERMES-Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 12(22), 101-111. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v12i22.25496 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v12i22.25496
- Shahidian, H. (2002). Women in Iran: gender politics in the Islamic Republic (No. 197). Greenwood Publishing Group.
- Tamadonfar, M. (2001). Islam, law, and political control in contemporary Iran. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40(2), 205-220. https://doi.org/10.1111/0021-8294.00051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/0021-8294.00051
- Van Schaack, B. (2017). The crime of political genocide: repairing the genocide convention’s blind spot. In Genocide and Human Rights (pp. 145-177). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351157568-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351157568-5
- Weimann, G. (2007). Judicial practice in Islamic criminal law in Nigeria—A tentative overview. Islamic Law and Society, 14(2), 240-286. https://doi.org/10.1163/156851907781492494 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156851907781492494
References
Ahangar, A. A., Sultani, A. A., & Khoshkhoonejad, A. (2014). A critical study of news discourse: Iran’s tenth presidential election of 2009. In Keyhan and Etemad newspapers. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 6(1), 151-169.
Alesina, A., & Perotti, R. (1996). Income distribution, political instability, and investment. European economic review, 40(6), 1203-1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(95)00030-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(95)00030-5
Amini, A., & Ramazi, H. (2016). Application of electrical resistivity imaging for engineering site investigation. A case study on prospective hospital site, Varamin, Iran. Acta Geophysica, 64(6), 2200-2213. https://doi.o rg/10.1515/acgeo-2016-0100 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/acgeo-2016-0100
Arzhang, A., Fadakar Davarani, A., & Nozari Ferdowsieh, M. (2018). The Jurisprudential Foundations of Iran's Criminal Policy concerning the Spread of Prostitution Covered in the 2013 Penal Code. Ius Humani, Revista de Derecho, 7, 53. https://doi.org/10.31207/ih.v7i0.184 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31207/ih.v7i0.184
Bakhash, S. (1989). The politics of land, law, and social justice in Iran. Middle East Journal, 43(2), 186-201.
Bendor, A. L., & Dancig-Rosenberg, H. (2016). Unconstitutional Criminalization. New Criminal Law Review, 19(2), 171-207. https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2016.19.2.171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2016.19.2.171
Berdejo, C., & Yuchtman, N. (2013). Crime, punishment, and politics: an analysis of political cycles in criminal sentencing. Review of Economics and Statistics, 95(3), 741-756. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00296 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00296
Blakeslee, D. S., & Fishman, R. (2018). Weather shocks, agriculture, and crime evidence from India. Journal of Human Resources, 53(3), 750-782. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.53.3.0715-7234R1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.53.3.0715-7234R1
Daniele, G. (2019). Strike one to educate one hundred: Organized crime, political selection and politicians’ ability. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 159, 650-662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jebo.2017.07.021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2017.07.021
Daniel, E. L. (2012). The history of Iran. ABC-CLIO.
Doran, M. C. (2017). The hidden face of violence in Latin America: assessing the criminalization of protest in comparative perspective. Latin American Perspectives, 44(5), 183-206. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0094582X17719258 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X17719258
Dvoskin, J. A., Knoll, J. L., & Silva, M. (2020). A brief history of the criminalization of mental illness. CNS spectrums, 25(5), 638-650. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920000103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920000103
Gehring, K., Kauffeldt, T. F., & Vadlamannati, K. C. (2019). Crime, incentives and political effort: Evidence from India. European Journal of Political Economy, 59, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.12.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.12.005
Giddens, A., & Griffiths, S. (2006). Sociology. Polity Press.
Hagan, F. E. (1997). Political crime: Ideology and criminality. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
KhosraviNik, M. (2015). Macro and micro legitimation in discourse on Iran’s nuclear programme: The case of Iranian national newspaper Kayhan. Discourse & Society, 26(1), 52-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/095 7926514541345 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926514541345
Kuczur, T. (2020). Political Crime as a Legal and Criminal Category. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Iuridica, 92(1), 147-171. https://doi.org/10.18778/0208-6069.92.11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18778/0208-6069.92.11
Martin, G. (2016). Criminalizing dissent: Social movements, public order policing and the erosion of protest rights. In The Routledge international handbook of criminology and human rights (pp. 306-316). Routledge.
Rankin, S. (2020). Civilly Criminalizing Homelessness. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review (CR-CL), Forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3677531 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3677531
Riazi, A. (2005). The four language stages in the history of Iran. Decolonisation, globalisation: Language-in-education policy and practice, 100-116. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853598265-008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853598265-008
Riyadi, B. S., & Mustofa, M. (2020). Corruption Culture on Managing Natural Resources: The Case Political Crime "Papa asking Stock of PT. Freeport Indonesia." International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 9, 26-36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2020.09.04
Robinson, O. F., & Robinson, C. F. (1995). The criminal law of ancient Rome (pp. 32-35). London: Duckworth.
Ross, J. I. (2012). An introduction to political crime. Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t898f9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t898f9
Ruggiero, V. (2017). Political violence and crime. In: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.371 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.371
Sandrini, P. (1999). Legal terminology. Some aspects for a new methodology. HERMES-Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 12(22), 101-111. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v12i22.25496 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v12i22.25496
Shahidian, H. (2002). Women in Iran: gender politics in the Islamic Republic (No. 197). Greenwood Publishing Group.
Tamadonfar, M. (2001). Islam, law, and political control in contemporary Iran. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40(2), 205-220. https://doi.org/10.1111/0021-8294.00051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/0021-8294.00051
Van Schaack, B. (2017). The crime of political genocide: repairing the genocide convention’s blind spot. In Genocide and Human Rights (pp. 145-177). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351157568-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351157568-5
Weimann, G. (2007). Judicial practice in Islamic criminal law in Nigeria—A tentative overview. Islamic Law and Society, 14(2), 240-286. https://doi.org/10.1163/156851907781492494 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156851907781492494