Authors retain the copyright without restrictions for their published content in this journal. HSSR is a SHERPA ROMEO Green Journal.
Publishing License
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
THE IMPACTS OF SPOUSES’ EDUCATION AND MATERNAL HEALTH ON FERTILITY IN PAKISTAN: AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS
Corresponding Author(s) : Qurra-tul-ain Ali Sheikh
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 2 (2021): March
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This paper primarily aims to recognize, develop, and examine the impacts of spouses’ education and maternal health status in cooperation with a variety of other covariates (demographic, social, economic, cultural, and attitudinal) on fertility in Pakistan.
Methodology: This study mainly aimed to discover how spouse’s education and maternal health inputs help in controlling high fertility using four data sets of Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (1990-91, 2006-07, 2012-13 and 2017-18) through count data model (Poisson regression).
Main Findings: Our empirical results proved the hypotheses that educated spouses and healthy mothers practice family planning tools (contraceptives) to lower down the total fertility rates.
Application of this study: Educated husband and wife will keep their family size smaller to devote more on children’s nutrition, health, and education. In general, rise in intentional birth control method make the education policy more helpful in reducing fertility. Findings draw government attention for embarking on public enlightenment campaigns to generate wakefulness regarding the long-term significance of fertility regulation in Pakistan.
Novelty/Originality: The study is one of its kind because it attempted to explore the link among spouse’s education, maternal health inputs, and child’s health outcomes with fertility that could be used to benchmark for additional research in Pakistan.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Abayomi, O. S., & Thonaeng, C. M. (2018). Maternal Education, Fertility, and Child Survival in Comoros. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(12), 2814. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122814 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122814
- Akter, T., Hoque, D. M. E., Chowdhury, E. K.; Rahman, M. M. & Arifeen, S. E. (2015). Is there any association between parental education and child mortality? A study in a rural area of Bangladesh. Public Health, 129(12), 1602-1609. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2015.08.004
- Ali, F. & Gurmu, S. (2018). The impact of female education on fertility: a natural experiment from Egypt. Rev Econ Household, 16, 681-712. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9357-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9357-6
- Arif, G.M. & Shahnaz, H. (2009). Urbanization, city growth and quality of life in Pakistan. European Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2), 196-215. http://www.fcitizenforum.com/PROBLEMS-OF-A-CITY.pd
- Bagavos, C. & Alexandra, T. (2017). The compositional effects of education and employment on Greek male and female fertility rates during 2000-2014. Demographic Research, 36(47), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.4054/D emRes.2017.36.47 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2017.36.47
- Barbara S. M., Erica, K. C., Andrea, J. M. & Stephanie, R. P. (2019). Evidence for causal links between education and maternal and child health: systematic review. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 24(5), 504-522. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.13218 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.13218
- Basu, A. M. (1994). Maternal education, fertility and child mortality: Disentangling verbal relationships. Health Transition Review, 4(2), 207-215. https://doi.org/10.2307/40652136
- Butt, M. S., & Jamal, H. (1993). Determinants of marital fertility in Pakistan: An application of the synthesis framework. The Pakistan Development Review, 32(2), 199-220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30541/v32i2pp.199-220
- Caldwell, J., Caldwell, P., & McDonald, P. (2002). Policy Responses to Low Fertility and its Consequences: A Global Survey. Journal of Population Research, 19(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031966 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031966
- Chen, Y. & Li, H. (2009). Mother’s education and child health: Is there a nurturing effect? Journal of Health Economics, 28(2), 413-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.10.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.10.005
- Dinçer, M.A., Kaushal, N. & Grossman, M. (2014). Women’s Education: Harbinger of another spring? Results from a Natural Experiment in Turkey. World Development, 64, 243-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j .worlddev.2014.06.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.06.010
- Gakidou, E., Cowling, K., Lozano, R. & Murray, C. J. L. (2010). Increased educational attainment and its effect on child mortality in 175 countries between 1970 and 2009: A systematic analysis. Lancet, 376(9745), 959-974. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(10)61257-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61257-3
- Götmark, F. & Andersson, M. (2020). Human fertility about education, economy, religion, contraception, and family planning programs. BMC Public Health 20:265. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8331-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8331-7
- Gudbrandsen, N. H. (2013). Female autonomy and fertility in Nepal. South Asia Economic Journal, 14(1), 157-173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1391561413477945 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1391561413477945
- Gunes, P. M. (2015). The role of maternal education in child health: Evidence from a compulsory schooling law. Economics of Education Review, 47(3), 1-16. https://doi: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.02.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.02.008
- Gupta, D. M., Zhenghua, J., Bohua, L., Zhenming X. & Chung, W. and Hwa-Ok, B. (2003). Why is son preference so persistent in East and South Asia? a cross-country study of China, India, and the Republic of Korea. The Journal of Development Studies, 40(2), 153-187. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380412331293807 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380412331293807
- Hakim, A. & Miller, P. C. (2000). Family Planning in Pakistan: A Turning Point, Fertility Transition in South Asia. International Studies in Demography, Oxford University Press. Population Policy Shifts, 569.
- Hakim, A., Salway, S., & Mumtaz, Z. (2003). Women’s autonomy and uptake of contraception in Pakistan. Asia-Pacific Population Journal, 18(1), 63-82. https://doi.org/10.18356/ac8237a9-en DOI: https://doi.org/10.18356/ac8237a9-en
- Hasan, A. (2010). Migration, small towns and social transformations in Pakistan. Environment and Urbanization, 22(1), 33-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809356180 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809356180
- Hondroyiannis, G. (2004). Modeling household fertility in Greece. The Social Science Journal, 41(3), 477-483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2004.04.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2004.04.003
- Kabir, A. & Islam, M. F. (2002). The Effect of Breastfeeding on Fertility in Bangladesh. International Quarterly of Community Health Education, 21(3), 277-287. https://doi.org/10.2190/8LLQ-AH7F-N2PX-9H2F DOI: https://doi.org/10.2190/8LLQ-AH7F-N2PX-9H2F
- Kebede, E. Striessnig, E. & Goujon, A. (2021). The relative importance of women’s education on fertility desires in sub-Saharan Africa: A multilevel analysis, Population Studies, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/003247 28.2021.1892170 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2021.1892170
- Khattak, S. W. (2017). Determinants of Adolescent Fertility in Pakistan: Evidence from PDHS 2012-13. The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 25(2), 95-108.
- Magadi, M. K., Madise, N. J. & Rodrigues, R. N. (2000). Frequency and timing of antenatal care in kenya: explaining the variations between women of different communities. Social Science and Medicine, 51(4), 551-561. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00495-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00495-5
- Mahmood, N., & Ringheim, K. (1996). Factors affecting contraceptive use in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 35(1), 1-22. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41259935 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30541/v35i1pp.1-22
- Makate, M. (2016). Education Policy and Under-Five Survival in Uganda: Evidence from the Demographic and Health Surveys. Social Science, 5(4), 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci5040070 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci5040070
- Martin, T. C. (1995). Women’s Education and Fertility: Results from 26 Demographic and Health Surveys. Studies in Family Planning, 26(4), 187-202. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137845 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2137845
- Marquis, G. S., Penny, M. E., Diaz, J. M., & Marin, R. M. (2002). Postpartum consequences of an overlap of breastfeeding and pregnancy: Reduced breast milk intake and growth during early infancy. Pediatrics, 109(4), 56-63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.109.4.e56
- Mturi, A. J. (1997). The determinants of birth intervals among non-contracepting Tanzanian women. African Population Studies, 12(2).
- Nanda, S. (2005). Cultural determinants of human fertility: A study of tribal population in Orissa. Anthropologist, 7(3), 221-227. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2005.11890912 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2005.11890912
- Nanda, J., Adak, D. K. & Bharati, P. (2011). Contraceptive practices among adolescent women inTamil Nadu, India. Asian Pacific Journal Tropical Disease, 1(2), 137-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(11)60054-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(11)60054-6
- Nausheen, S., Bhura, M., Hackett, K., Hussain, I., Shaikh, Z., Rizvi, A., Ansari, U., Canning, D., Shah, I., & Soofi, S. (2021). Determinants of short birth intervals among married women: a cross-sectional study in Karachi, Pakistan. BMJ open, 11(4), e043786. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043786 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043786
- Nuwaha, F. & Amooti-kaguna, B. (1999). Predictors of home deliveries in Rakai district, Uganda. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 3(2), 79-86. https://doi.org/10.2307/3583363 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3583363
- Orsal, D. D. K., & Goldstein, J. R. (2010). The increasing economic conditions on fertility. MPIDR Working Papers WP-2010-014, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany. https://doi.org/10.4054/MPIDR-WP-2010-014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4054/MPIDR-WP-2010-014
- Osili, U.O. & Long, B.T. (2008). Does female schooling reduce fertility? Evidence from Nigeria. Journal of Development Economics, 87(1), 57-75. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2007.10.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2007.10.003
- Price, N. L. & Thomas N. H. (1999). Continuity and change in the Gwembe valley Tonga family and their relevance to demography‘s nucleation thesis. Africa; 69, 510-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1160873
- Rabbi, A. M. (2012). Mass media exposure and its impact on fertility: Current Scenario of Bangladesh. Journal of Scientific Research, 4(2), 383-395. https://doi.org/10.3329/jsr.v4i2.8917 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/jsr.v4i2.8917
- Rafi, A. D., Naz, L. & Rubi, A. (2021). Impact of high-risk fertility behaviours on under-five mortality in Asia and Africa: evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 21, 344. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-03780-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-03780-y
- Rashida, Q. & Donald, J. A. (1996). Determinants of Marital Fertility in Pakistan: The Impact of Education, Work and Family Planning, Sociological Focus, 29(2), 167-178. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.1996.10570638 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.1996.10570638
- Saleem, A. & Pasha, G. R. (2008). Women’s reproductive autonomy and barriers to contraceptive use in Pakistan. The European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care, 13(1), 83-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443610701577107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01443610701577107
- Sandiford, P., Cassel, J., Sanchez, G. & Coldham, C. (1997). Does intelligence account for the link between maternal literacy and child survival? Social Sciences and Medicines, 45(8), 1231-1239. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(97)00042-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(97)00042-7
- Sathar, Z., Callum, C., & Jejeebhoy, S. (2001). Gender, region, religion and reproductive behavior in India and Pakistan. Paper presented at the 24th IUSSP General Population Conference, Salvador, Brazil. https://doi:10.22452/MJES.vol54no1.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22452/MJES.vol54no1.6
- Shakya, K. & Gubhaju, B. (2016). Factors contributing to fertility decline in Nepal. Journal of Population Social Studies, 24(1), 13-29.
- Sheikh, Q. A., Sadaqat, M. S. & Meraj, M. (2017). Reckoning females’ education as a determinant of fertility control in Pakistan An empirical approach. International Journal of Social Economics, 44(3),414-444. https://doi 10.1108/IJSE-01-2015-0007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-01-2015-0007
- Sheikh, S. M. & Loney, T. (2018) Is Educating Girls the Best Investment for South Asia? Association Between Female Education and Fertility Choices in South Asia: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 172. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00172
- Timaeus, I. M., & Reynar, A. (1998). Polygynists and their Wives in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Analysis of Five Demographics and Health Surveys. Population Studies, 52(2), 145-162. https://doi.org/10.1 080/0032472031000150346 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0032472031000150346
- Winkelmann, R. (1995). Duration dependence and dispersion in count-data models. Journal of Business and Economics Statistics, 13(4), 467-474. https://doi.org/10.1080/07350015.1995.10524620 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07350015.1995.10524620
- Zafar, M. I., Asif, F., & Anwer, N. H. (2002). Perceptions of the Male Children: Satisfaction and Expectations. Journal of Applied Sciences, 2(11), 1044-1049. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2002.1044.1049
- Zahid, K., & Masood, S. A. (2020). Impact of Urban Agglomeration on Economic Growth of Cities. Review of Economics and Development Studies, 3(2), 167-181. https://doi.org/10.26710/reads.v3i2.193 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26710/reads.v3i2.193
References
Abayomi, O. S., & Thonaeng, C. M. (2018). Maternal Education, Fertility, and Child Survival in Comoros. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(12), 2814. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122814 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122814
Akter, T., Hoque, D. M. E., Chowdhury, E. K.; Rahman, M. M. & Arifeen, S. E. (2015). Is there any association between parental education and child mortality? A study in a rural area of Bangladesh. Public Health, 129(12), 1602-1609. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2015.08.004
Ali, F. & Gurmu, S. (2018). The impact of female education on fertility: a natural experiment from Egypt. Rev Econ Household, 16, 681-712. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9357-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9357-6
Arif, G.M. & Shahnaz, H. (2009). Urbanization, city growth and quality of life in Pakistan. European Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2), 196-215. http://www.fcitizenforum.com/PROBLEMS-OF-A-CITY.pd
Bagavos, C. & Alexandra, T. (2017). The compositional effects of education and employment on Greek male and female fertility rates during 2000-2014. Demographic Research, 36(47), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.4054/D emRes.2017.36.47 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2017.36.47
Barbara S. M., Erica, K. C., Andrea, J. M. & Stephanie, R. P. (2019). Evidence for causal links between education and maternal and child health: systematic review. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 24(5), 504-522. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.13218 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.13218
Basu, A. M. (1994). Maternal education, fertility and child mortality: Disentangling verbal relationships. Health Transition Review, 4(2), 207-215. https://doi.org/10.2307/40652136
Butt, M. S., & Jamal, H. (1993). Determinants of marital fertility in Pakistan: An application of the synthesis framework. The Pakistan Development Review, 32(2), 199-220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30541/v32i2pp.199-220
Caldwell, J., Caldwell, P., & McDonald, P. (2002). Policy Responses to Low Fertility and its Consequences: A Global Survey. Journal of Population Research, 19(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031966 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031966
Chen, Y. & Li, H. (2009). Mother’s education and child health: Is there a nurturing effect? Journal of Health Economics, 28(2), 413-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.10.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.10.005
Dinçer, M.A., Kaushal, N. & Grossman, M. (2014). Women’s Education: Harbinger of another spring? Results from a Natural Experiment in Turkey. World Development, 64, 243-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j .worlddev.2014.06.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.06.010
Gakidou, E., Cowling, K., Lozano, R. & Murray, C. J. L. (2010). Increased educational attainment and its effect on child mortality in 175 countries between 1970 and 2009: A systematic analysis. Lancet, 376(9745), 959-974. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(10)61257-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61257-3
Götmark, F. & Andersson, M. (2020). Human fertility about education, economy, religion, contraception, and family planning programs. BMC Public Health 20:265. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8331-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8331-7
Gudbrandsen, N. H. (2013). Female autonomy and fertility in Nepal. South Asia Economic Journal, 14(1), 157-173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1391561413477945 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1391561413477945
Gunes, P. M. (2015). The role of maternal education in child health: Evidence from a compulsory schooling law. Economics of Education Review, 47(3), 1-16. https://doi: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.02.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.02.008
Gupta, D. M., Zhenghua, J., Bohua, L., Zhenming X. & Chung, W. and Hwa-Ok, B. (2003). Why is son preference so persistent in East and South Asia? a cross-country study of China, India, and the Republic of Korea. The Journal of Development Studies, 40(2), 153-187. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380412331293807 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380412331293807
Hakim, A. & Miller, P. C. (2000). Family Planning in Pakistan: A Turning Point, Fertility Transition in South Asia. International Studies in Demography, Oxford University Press. Population Policy Shifts, 569.
Hakim, A., Salway, S., & Mumtaz, Z. (2003). Women’s autonomy and uptake of contraception in Pakistan. Asia-Pacific Population Journal, 18(1), 63-82. https://doi.org/10.18356/ac8237a9-en DOI: https://doi.org/10.18356/ac8237a9-en
Hasan, A. (2010). Migration, small towns and social transformations in Pakistan. Environment and Urbanization, 22(1), 33-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809356180 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809356180
Hondroyiannis, G. (2004). Modeling household fertility in Greece. The Social Science Journal, 41(3), 477-483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2004.04.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2004.04.003
Kabir, A. & Islam, M. F. (2002). The Effect of Breastfeeding on Fertility in Bangladesh. International Quarterly of Community Health Education, 21(3), 277-287. https://doi.org/10.2190/8LLQ-AH7F-N2PX-9H2F DOI: https://doi.org/10.2190/8LLQ-AH7F-N2PX-9H2F
Kebede, E. Striessnig, E. & Goujon, A. (2021). The relative importance of women’s education on fertility desires in sub-Saharan Africa: A multilevel analysis, Population Studies, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/003247 28.2021.1892170 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2021.1892170
Khattak, S. W. (2017). Determinants of Adolescent Fertility in Pakistan: Evidence from PDHS 2012-13. The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 25(2), 95-108.
Magadi, M. K., Madise, N. J. & Rodrigues, R. N. (2000). Frequency and timing of antenatal care in kenya: explaining the variations between women of different communities. Social Science and Medicine, 51(4), 551-561. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00495-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00495-5
Mahmood, N., & Ringheim, K. (1996). Factors affecting contraceptive use in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 35(1), 1-22. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41259935 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30541/v35i1pp.1-22
Makate, M. (2016). Education Policy and Under-Five Survival in Uganda: Evidence from the Demographic and Health Surveys. Social Science, 5(4), 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci5040070 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci5040070
Martin, T. C. (1995). Women’s Education and Fertility: Results from 26 Demographic and Health Surveys. Studies in Family Planning, 26(4), 187-202. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137845 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2137845
Marquis, G. S., Penny, M. E., Diaz, J. M., & Marin, R. M. (2002). Postpartum consequences of an overlap of breastfeeding and pregnancy: Reduced breast milk intake and growth during early infancy. Pediatrics, 109(4), 56-63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.109.4.e56
Mturi, A. J. (1997). The determinants of birth intervals among non-contracepting Tanzanian women. African Population Studies, 12(2).
Nanda, S. (2005). Cultural determinants of human fertility: A study of tribal population in Orissa. Anthropologist, 7(3), 221-227. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2005.11890912 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2005.11890912
Nanda, J., Adak, D. K. & Bharati, P. (2011). Contraceptive practices among adolescent women inTamil Nadu, India. Asian Pacific Journal Tropical Disease, 1(2), 137-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(11)60054-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(11)60054-6
Nausheen, S., Bhura, M., Hackett, K., Hussain, I., Shaikh, Z., Rizvi, A., Ansari, U., Canning, D., Shah, I., & Soofi, S. (2021). Determinants of short birth intervals among married women: a cross-sectional study in Karachi, Pakistan. BMJ open, 11(4), e043786. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043786 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043786
Nuwaha, F. & Amooti-kaguna, B. (1999). Predictors of home deliveries in Rakai district, Uganda. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 3(2), 79-86. https://doi.org/10.2307/3583363 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3583363
Orsal, D. D. K., & Goldstein, J. R. (2010). The increasing economic conditions on fertility. MPIDR Working Papers WP-2010-014, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany. https://doi.org/10.4054/MPIDR-WP-2010-014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4054/MPIDR-WP-2010-014
Osili, U.O. & Long, B.T. (2008). Does female schooling reduce fertility? Evidence from Nigeria. Journal of Development Economics, 87(1), 57-75. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2007.10.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2007.10.003
Price, N. L. & Thomas N. H. (1999). Continuity and change in the Gwembe valley Tonga family and their relevance to demography‘s nucleation thesis. Africa; 69, 510-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1160873
Rabbi, A. M. (2012). Mass media exposure and its impact on fertility: Current Scenario of Bangladesh. Journal of Scientific Research, 4(2), 383-395. https://doi.org/10.3329/jsr.v4i2.8917 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/jsr.v4i2.8917
Rafi, A. D., Naz, L. & Rubi, A. (2021). Impact of high-risk fertility behaviours on under-five mortality in Asia and Africa: evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 21, 344. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-03780-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-03780-y
Rashida, Q. & Donald, J. A. (1996). Determinants of Marital Fertility in Pakistan: The Impact of Education, Work and Family Planning, Sociological Focus, 29(2), 167-178. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.1996.10570638 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.1996.10570638
Saleem, A. & Pasha, G. R. (2008). Women’s reproductive autonomy and barriers to contraceptive use in Pakistan. The European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care, 13(1), 83-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443610701577107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01443610701577107
Sandiford, P., Cassel, J., Sanchez, G. & Coldham, C. (1997). Does intelligence account for the link between maternal literacy and child survival? Social Sciences and Medicines, 45(8), 1231-1239. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(97)00042-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(97)00042-7
Sathar, Z., Callum, C., & Jejeebhoy, S. (2001). Gender, region, religion and reproductive behavior in India and Pakistan. Paper presented at the 24th IUSSP General Population Conference, Salvador, Brazil. https://doi:10.22452/MJES.vol54no1.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22452/MJES.vol54no1.6
Shakya, K. & Gubhaju, B. (2016). Factors contributing to fertility decline in Nepal. Journal of Population Social Studies, 24(1), 13-29.
Sheikh, Q. A., Sadaqat, M. S. & Meraj, M. (2017). Reckoning females’ education as a determinant of fertility control in Pakistan An empirical approach. International Journal of Social Economics, 44(3),414-444. https://doi 10.1108/IJSE-01-2015-0007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-01-2015-0007
Sheikh, S. M. & Loney, T. (2018) Is Educating Girls the Best Investment for South Asia? Association Between Female Education and Fertility Choices in South Asia: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 172. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00172
Timaeus, I. M., & Reynar, A. (1998). Polygynists and their Wives in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Analysis of Five Demographics and Health Surveys. Population Studies, 52(2), 145-162. https://doi.org/10.1 080/0032472031000150346 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0032472031000150346
Winkelmann, R. (1995). Duration dependence and dispersion in count-data models. Journal of Business and Economics Statistics, 13(4), 467-474. https://doi.org/10.1080/07350015.1995.10524620 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07350015.1995.10524620
Zafar, M. I., Asif, F., & Anwer, N. H. (2002). Perceptions of the Male Children: Satisfaction and Expectations. Journal of Applied Sciences, 2(11), 1044-1049. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2002.1044.1049
Zahid, K., & Masood, S. A. (2020). Impact of Urban Agglomeration on Economic Growth of Cities. Review of Economics and Development Studies, 3(2), 167-181. https://doi.org/10.26710/reads.v3i2.193 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26710/reads.v3i2.193