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THE CONNECTION BETWEEN DIGITAL DIVIDE AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK
Corresponding Author(s) : Thommy Sebatana Molala
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 4 (2021): July
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This paper aims to ascertain the nexus between the digital divide and social exclusion (inequalities) - directly and indirectly, as digital technology enables people to socialise, communicate, work, study, and conduct business.
Methodology: To do this, the literature review is employed as a methodology. Specifically, the narrative or semi-systematic literature review was conducted on all sources germane to the topic under investigation.
Main findings: The paper has found that the digital divide has adverse effects on the employment, education, health, social services, and socio-economic development of digitally excluded people. In addition, it has emerged that the digital divide exacerbates social exclusion.
Applications of this study: To this end, Social Workers and associated professionals are empowered with knowledge about the role of the digital divide in social exclusion, thus they are expected to play active assume advocacy roles as far as Information Communication Policies are concerned.
Novelty/Originality of this study: Digitalisation has embedded factors inducing poverty, inequity, and discrimination unintentionally; thereby this paper replenishes literature in Social Science to enable Social Scientists to utilise relevant information –in their research, intervention, and commentary.
Keywords
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- Abaza, H., & Marschollek, M. (2017). mHealth Application Areas and Technology Combinations: A Comparison of Literature from High and Low/Middle-Income Countries. Methods Inf Med, 56(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.3414/ME17-05-0003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3414/ME17-05-0003
- Adamopoulou, E.,& Moussiades, L. (2020). Chatbots: History, technology, and applications. Machine Learning with Applications, 2, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mlwa.2020.100006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mlwa.2020.100006
- Barrow, H. (2020). Digital, exclusion-covid-19 and social-inequalities. https://immigrationnews.co.uk/digital-exclusion-covid-19-and-social-inequalities/
- Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews. Review of General Psychology, 1, 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.3.311 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.3.311
- Berafe, T.(2017). Assessing the causes and effects of social exclusion: The case of ‘potmakers’ in Yem Special Woreda Southern Nation, Nationalities and Peoples Region state in Ethiopia. African Journal of Political sciences and International Relations, 11(4), 68-83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPSIR2016.0967
- Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
- Broadband commission. (2019). State of Broadband Report 2019. International Telecommunication Union.
- Calarco, J. (2020). Online learning will be hard for kids whose schools close- and the digital divide will make it even harder for some of them. https://theconversation.com/online-learning-will-be-hard-for-kids-whose-schools-close-and-the-digital-divide-will-make-it-even-harder-for-some-of-them-133338
- Campbell, B. R., Ingersoll, K.S., Flickinger, T.E., & Dullingham, R. (2019). Bridging the digital health divide: toward equitable global access to mobile health interventions for people living with HIV. Expert Review of anti-infective Therapy, 17(3), 141-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2019.1578649 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2019.1578649
- Carnwell, R., & Daly, W. (2001). Strategies for the construction of a critical review of the literature. Nurse education in practice, 1(2), 57-63. https://doi.org/10.1054/nepr.2001.0008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1054/nepr.2001.0008
- Citizens Advice Scotland. (2018). Disconnected: Understanding digital inclusion and improving access.
- Clarke, S. (2018). Social Work as Community Development: A Management Model for Social Change (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315190648 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315190648
- Dillingham, R., Ingersoll, K., Flickinger, T. E., Waldman, A. L., Grabowski, M., Laurence, C., Wispelwey, E., Reynol, G., Conaway, M.,& Cohn, W. F.(2018). Positive Links: a mobile health intervention for retention in HIV care and clinical outcome with 12-month follow-up. AIDS Patient care STDS, 32(6), 241-250. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2017.0303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2017.0303
- GeertsemaSligh, M. (2006). Gender and the Digital Economy: Perspectives from the Developing World. Asian Journal of Communication, 16(4),440–442.
- Giansanti, D.,& Veltro, G. (2021). The Digital divide in the era of Covid-19:An investigation into an important obstacle to the access mHealth by the citizen. Health 2021, 9(371), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9040371 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9040371
- Gillwald, A ., Mothobi, O.,& Rademan, B. (2018). The state of ICT in South Africa. Research ICT Africa
- GSMA.(2020). The mobile Economy: Sub-Saharan Africa.
- Edlmann,T., Senona,E., Torkelson.,& Zembe, W.(2021). The Covid grant should be R585 , so everyone can afford to eat. https://www.groundup.org.za/article/the-covid-19-grant-should-meet-the-food-poverty-line-currently-at-r585-so-all-people-in-south-africa-can-afford-to-eat/
- Helsper, E., & Galacz, A .(2009). Understanding the links between social and digital inclusion in Europe . Changing Societies, Economies and Cultures, 146-178
- Hoolohan, C., Amankwaa, G.,Browne, A. L., Clear, A., Holstead, K., Machen, R., Michalec, O.,& Ward, S. (2021). Resocializing digital water transformations: outlining social science perspectives on the digital water journey. WIREs Water, 8(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1512 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1512
- Independent Communication Authority of South Africa.(2020). The state of the ICT sector Report in South Africa.
- International Telecommunications Union.(2019). Measuring digital development: facts and figures 2019.
- International Telecommunications Union.(2020). Measuring digital development :facts and figures 2020.
- Johnson, V. (2010). Women and the Internet: A Micro Study in Chennai, India. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 17(1) ,151–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152150901700107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/097152150901700107
- Khan, S.(2012). Social Exclusion. Governance and Social Resource Centre.
- Khanna, A., Pandey, B., Vashishta, K., Kalia, K., Bhale, P., & Das, T.(2015). A study of today’s A.I. through chatbots and rediscovery of machine intelligence. International Journal of U-and eservice, Science and Technology, 8, 277-284. https://doi.org/10.14257/ijunesst.2015.8.7.28 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14257/ijunesst.2015.8.7.28
- Marianne, E. (2018). Building digitally inclusive communities. The Workshop.
- McKinsey Global Institute.(2020).What’s next for remote work: An analysis of 2,000 tasks, 800 jobs, and nine countries.
- Meeks, K.R. (2017). The challenges of job hunting without the internet. http://longbeachmc.org/the-challenges-of-job-hunting-without-the-internet/
- Montoya, S. (2020). The importance of monitoring and improving ICT use in education post-confinement. http://uis.unesco.org/en/blog/importance-monitoring-and-improving-ict-use-education-post-confinement.
- Mracek, K. (2018). What is the impact of digital divide? https://www.stlouisfed.org/open-vault/2018/November/impact-of-digital-divide.
- Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2018). Reviewing the literature: choosing a review design. Evidence Based Nursing, 21(2), 39-41. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2018-102895 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2018-102895
- Nyaunda, L., Matlakala, F, K ., & Makhubele, J.C. (2020). Factors Impeding the Participation of Rural Women in the Climate Change Discourse: A Requirement for Social Work Intervention. Southern African Journal of Social Work and Social Development, 32(3), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.25159/2708-9355/7771 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25159/2708-9355/7771
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2016). Innovating Education and Educating for Innovation: The Power of Digital Technologies and Skills.
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.(2018). Bridging the digital gender divide include, upskill, innovate.
- Pienaar, G., Davids, Y. D., Roberts, B., Makoae, M., & Hart, T.(2021). The BIG question: COVID-19 and policy support for a basic income grant. Human Sciences Research Council.
- Ragnedda, M. (2019). Reconceptualising the digital divide. In Mutsvairo, B., and Ragnedda, M., (2019) (eds)., Mapping the Digital Divide in Africa. A mediated Analysis (pp. 27-43). Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh4zj72.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh4zj72.6
- Sanders, C. K., & Scanlon, E. (2021). The digital divide is Human Rights: Advancing Social Inclusion through Social Work advocacy. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 6, 130-143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-020-00147-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-020-00147-9
- Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of business research, 104, 333-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039
- Suvankulov, F., Lau, C., & Chau, F. (2012). Job searches on the internet and its outcome. Internet Research, 22(3), 298-317. https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211235662 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211235662
- Soomro, K.A., Kale, U., Curtis, R., Akcaogola, M., & .Bernstein, M. (2020). Digital Divide among higher education faculty. International Journal of Education Technology in Higher Education, 17(21), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00191-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00191-5
- Stewaert, F.(2004).The relationship between horizontal inequality and social exclusion. Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security, and Ethnicity.
- Torraco, R. J. (2005). Writing integrative literature reviews: Guidelines and examples. Human Resource Development Review, 4, 356–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484305278283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484305278283
- Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British Journal of Management, 14, 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375
- Turianskyi,Y.(2020). COVID-19: Implications for the 'digital divide' in Africa. https://www.africaportal.org/ features/covid-19-implications-of-the-pandemic-for-the-digital-divide-in-africa/
- United Nations.(2021). Leveraging digital technologies for social inclusion.
- United Nations International Children's Fund. (2020). COVID-19: At least a third of the world’s schoolchildren unable to access remote learning during school closures, new report says.
- Van Dijk, J.(2005). The Deepening Divide. SAGE.
- Van Dijk, J. (2020). Closing the digital divide: The Role of Digital Technologies on Social Development, Well-Being of All and the Approach of the Covid-19 Pandemic. Polity Press.
- Watts, G. (2020). Covid-19 and the digital divide in UK. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2589-7500(20)30169-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2589-7500(20)30169-2
- Webster, J., & Watson, R. T. (2002). Analyzing the past to prepare for the future: Writing a literature review. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 26, 3.
- Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. (2005). The integrative review: updated methodology. Journal of advanced nursing, 52(5), 546-553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x
- Wong, G., Greenhalgh, T., Westhorp, G., Buckingham, J., & Pawson, R. (2013). RAMESES publication standards: Meta-narrative reviews. BMC Medicine, 11, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-20
- Wong, Y.C., Kwong, C., Chu Fung, J.Y., & Ping Lee, V.W.(2010). Digital divide and social inclusion: policy challenge for social development in Hong Kong and South Korea. Journal of Asian Public Policy, 3(1), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.1080/17516231003634161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17516231003634161
- World Economic Forum. (2014). Delivering Digital Infrastructure Advancing the Internet Economy.
- World Economic Forum.(2021). How skills development can bridge a growing divide among workers.
- World Health Organisation.(2020). Covid-19 significantly impacts health services for noncommunicable disease.
- Zalat, M. M., Hamed, M. S., & Bolboi, S. A.( 2021). The experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic among university medical staff. PLoS ONE, 16(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248758 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248758
- Zastrow, C. (2017). Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Empowering people(2thed.). Cengage Learning.
References
Abaza, H., & Marschollek, M. (2017). mHealth Application Areas and Technology Combinations: A Comparison of Literature from High and Low/Middle-Income Countries. Methods Inf Med, 56(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.3414/ME17-05-0003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3414/ME17-05-0003
Adamopoulou, E.,& Moussiades, L. (2020). Chatbots: History, technology, and applications. Machine Learning with Applications, 2, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mlwa.2020.100006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mlwa.2020.100006
Barrow, H. (2020). Digital, exclusion-covid-19 and social-inequalities. https://immigrationnews.co.uk/digital-exclusion-covid-19-and-social-inequalities/
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews. Review of General Psychology, 1, 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.3.311 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.3.311
Berafe, T.(2017). Assessing the causes and effects of social exclusion: The case of ‘potmakers’ in Yem Special Woreda Southern Nation, Nationalities and Peoples Region state in Ethiopia. African Journal of Political sciences and International Relations, 11(4), 68-83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPSIR2016.0967
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Broadband commission. (2019). State of Broadband Report 2019. International Telecommunication Union.
Calarco, J. (2020). Online learning will be hard for kids whose schools close- and the digital divide will make it even harder for some of them. https://theconversation.com/online-learning-will-be-hard-for-kids-whose-schools-close-and-the-digital-divide-will-make-it-even-harder-for-some-of-them-133338
Campbell, B. R., Ingersoll, K.S., Flickinger, T.E., & Dullingham, R. (2019). Bridging the digital health divide: toward equitable global access to mobile health interventions for people living with HIV. Expert Review of anti-infective Therapy, 17(3), 141-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2019.1578649 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2019.1578649
Carnwell, R., & Daly, W. (2001). Strategies for the construction of a critical review of the literature. Nurse education in practice, 1(2), 57-63. https://doi.org/10.1054/nepr.2001.0008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1054/nepr.2001.0008
Citizens Advice Scotland. (2018). Disconnected: Understanding digital inclusion and improving access.
Clarke, S. (2018). Social Work as Community Development: A Management Model for Social Change (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315190648 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315190648
Dillingham, R., Ingersoll, K., Flickinger, T. E., Waldman, A. L., Grabowski, M., Laurence, C., Wispelwey, E., Reynol, G., Conaway, M.,& Cohn, W. F.(2018). Positive Links: a mobile health intervention for retention in HIV care and clinical outcome with 12-month follow-up. AIDS Patient care STDS, 32(6), 241-250. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2017.0303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2017.0303
GeertsemaSligh, M. (2006). Gender and the Digital Economy: Perspectives from the Developing World. Asian Journal of Communication, 16(4),440–442.
Giansanti, D.,& Veltro, G. (2021). The Digital divide in the era of Covid-19:An investigation into an important obstacle to the access mHealth by the citizen. Health 2021, 9(371), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9040371 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9040371
Gillwald, A ., Mothobi, O.,& Rademan, B. (2018). The state of ICT in South Africa. Research ICT Africa
GSMA.(2020). The mobile Economy: Sub-Saharan Africa.
Edlmann,T., Senona,E., Torkelson.,& Zembe, W.(2021). The Covid grant should be R585 , so everyone can afford to eat. https://www.groundup.org.za/article/the-covid-19-grant-should-meet-the-food-poverty-line-currently-at-r585-so-all-people-in-south-africa-can-afford-to-eat/
Helsper, E., & Galacz, A .(2009). Understanding the links between social and digital inclusion in Europe . Changing Societies, Economies and Cultures, 146-178
Hoolohan, C., Amankwaa, G.,Browne, A. L., Clear, A., Holstead, K., Machen, R., Michalec, O.,& Ward, S. (2021). Resocializing digital water transformations: outlining social science perspectives on the digital water journey. WIREs Water, 8(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1512 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1512
Independent Communication Authority of South Africa.(2020). The state of the ICT sector Report in South Africa.
International Telecommunications Union.(2019). Measuring digital development: facts and figures 2019.
International Telecommunications Union.(2020). Measuring digital development :facts and figures 2020.
Johnson, V. (2010). Women and the Internet: A Micro Study in Chennai, India. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 17(1) ,151–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152150901700107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/097152150901700107
Khan, S.(2012). Social Exclusion. Governance and Social Resource Centre.
Khanna, A., Pandey, B., Vashishta, K., Kalia, K., Bhale, P., & Das, T.(2015). A study of today’s A.I. through chatbots and rediscovery of machine intelligence. International Journal of U-and eservice, Science and Technology, 8, 277-284. https://doi.org/10.14257/ijunesst.2015.8.7.28 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14257/ijunesst.2015.8.7.28
Marianne, E. (2018). Building digitally inclusive communities. The Workshop.
McKinsey Global Institute.(2020).What’s next for remote work: An analysis of 2,000 tasks, 800 jobs, and nine countries.
Meeks, K.R. (2017). The challenges of job hunting without the internet. http://longbeachmc.org/the-challenges-of-job-hunting-without-the-internet/
Montoya, S. (2020). The importance of monitoring and improving ICT use in education post-confinement. http://uis.unesco.org/en/blog/importance-monitoring-and-improving-ict-use-education-post-confinement.
Mracek, K. (2018). What is the impact of digital divide? https://www.stlouisfed.org/open-vault/2018/November/impact-of-digital-divide.
Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2018). Reviewing the literature: choosing a review design. Evidence Based Nursing, 21(2), 39-41. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2018-102895 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2018-102895
Nyaunda, L., Matlakala, F, K ., & Makhubele, J.C. (2020). Factors Impeding the Participation of Rural Women in the Climate Change Discourse: A Requirement for Social Work Intervention. Southern African Journal of Social Work and Social Development, 32(3), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.25159/2708-9355/7771 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25159/2708-9355/7771
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2016). Innovating Education and Educating for Innovation: The Power of Digital Technologies and Skills.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.(2018). Bridging the digital gender divide include, upskill, innovate.
Pienaar, G., Davids, Y. D., Roberts, B., Makoae, M., & Hart, T.(2021). The BIG question: COVID-19 and policy support for a basic income grant. Human Sciences Research Council.
Ragnedda, M. (2019). Reconceptualising the digital divide. In Mutsvairo, B., and Ragnedda, M., (2019) (eds)., Mapping the Digital Divide in Africa. A mediated Analysis (pp. 27-43). Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh4zj72.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh4zj72.6
Sanders, C. K., & Scanlon, E. (2021). The digital divide is Human Rights: Advancing Social Inclusion through Social Work advocacy. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 6, 130-143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-020-00147-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-020-00147-9
Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of business research, 104, 333-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039
Suvankulov, F., Lau, C., & Chau, F. (2012). Job searches on the internet and its outcome. Internet Research, 22(3), 298-317. https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211235662 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211235662
Soomro, K.A., Kale, U., Curtis, R., Akcaogola, M., & .Bernstein, M. (2020). Digital Divide among higher education faculty. International Journal of Education Technology in Higher Education, 17(21), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00191-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00191-5
Stewaert, F.(2004).The relationship between horizontal inequality and social exclusion. Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security, and Ethnicity.
Torraco, R. J. (2005). Writing integrative literature reviews: Guidelines and examples. Human Resource Development Review, 4, 356–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484305278283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484305278283
Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British Journal of Management, 14, 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375
Turianskyi,Y.(2020). COVID-19: Implications for the 'digital divide' in Africa. https://www.africaportal.org/ features/covid-19-implications-of-the-pandemic-for-the-digital-divide-in-africa/
United Nations.(2021). Leveraging digital technologies for social inclusion.
United Nations International Children's Fund. (2020). COVID-19: At least a third of the world’s schoolchildren unable to access remote learning during school closures, new report says.
Van Dijk, J.(2005). The Deepening Divide. SAGE.
Van Dijk, J. (2020). Closing the digital divide: The Role of Digital Technologies on Social Development, Well-Being of All and the Approach of the Covid-19 Pandemic. Polity Press.
Watts, G. (2020). Covid-19 and the digital divide in UK. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2589-7500(20)30169-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2589-7500(20)30169-2
Webster, J., & Watson, R. T. (2002). Analyzing the past to prepare for the future: Writing a literature review. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 26, 3.
Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. (2005). The integrative review: updated methodology. Journal of advanced nursing, 52(5), 546-553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x
Wong, G., Greenhalgh, T., Westhorp, G., Buckingham, J., & Pawson, R. (2013). RAMESES publication standards: Meta-narrative reviews. BMC Medicine, 11, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-20
Wong, Y.C., Kwong, C., Chu Fung, J.Y., & Ping Lee, V.W.(2010). Digital divide and social inclusion: policy challenge for social development in Hong Kong and South Korea. Journal of Asian Public Policy, 3(1), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.1080/17516231003634161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17516231003634161
World Economic Forum. (2014). Delivering Digital Infrastructure Advancing the Internet Economy.
World Economic Forum.(2021). How skills development can bridge a growing divide among workers.
World Health Organisation.(2020). Covid-19 significantly impacts health services for noncommunicable disease.
Zalat, M. M., Hamed, M. S., & Bolboi, S. A.( 2021). The experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic among university medical staff. PLoS ONE, 16(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248758 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248758
Zastrow, C. (2017). Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Empowering people(2thed.). Cengage Learning.