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THE EFFECT OF PUBLIC POLICY ON THE DEMAND FOR HIGHER EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN: CASE OF COVID-19
Corresponding Author(s) : Muhammad Ibrahim Shah
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This research was conducted in the peak days of the Covid-19 pandemic. The intention was to know the effect of public policy of online classes on demand for higher studies.
Methodology: The data was collected online through Google forms via direct requests in different students groups. The probability that a student will continue studies if online classes were continued was the dependent variable and hence a "1" response and a "0" response otherwise, so logistic regression was applied.
Main Findings: If there is a preparedness problem for online classes, there would be a decrease in another admission, while ease of adaptability will increase admissions. A unit increase in tuition fees significantly negatively affects the probability of admissions in the online system. A male student, a day scholar student, has more probability of continuing studies in the online system.
Applications of this study: This study is very fruitful in devising educational policy and government guidance. Online classes were a new thing for the majority of the students and institutions, and our results can be of great help in the future course of action.
Novelty/Originality of this study: The study developed a perceptive questionnaire about online classes, and it was found to be reliable based on Cronbach alpha value of .82. We run Principal Component Analysis on a reliable scale and three components were extracted in the process i.e. ease of adaptability, system-related and preparedness problem.
Keywords
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- AbeAbe, J., Talbot, D. M., Geelhoed, R. J., Aberson, C., Swan, D. J., & Emerson, E. P. A Bcdefghijklmnopqrstuv W XYZ. Differences, 32(4), 90-100.
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- Binsaeed, R. H. (2015). Foreign direct investment drivers with regard to Saudi Financial Services (Doctoral dissertation, Brunel University London. http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/13585
- Birdsall, N. (1996). Public spending on higher education in developing countries: too much or too little?. Economics of Education Review, 15(4), 407-419. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(96)00028-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(96)00028-3
- Bishop, J. (1977). The effect of public policies on the demand for higher education. Journal of Human Resources, 285-307. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/145492
- Bishop, J. (1977). The effect of public policies on the demand for higher education. Journal of Human Resources, 285-307. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40195749 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/145492
- Bright, B. P. (Ed.). (2018). Theory and practice in the study of adult education: The epistemological debate. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429436758
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- Campbell, R., & Siegel, B. N. (1967). The demand for higher education in the United States, 1919-1964. The American Economic Review, 57(3), 482-494. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1812115
- Chaudhary, A. R., Iqbal, A., & Gillani, S. Y. M. (2009). The nexus between higher education and economic growth: An empirical investigation for Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences (PJCSS), 3, 1-9. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/187991
- Cheng, B. (2007). The government-subsidized student loan scheme for college students in China. Harvard University. https://www.proquest.com/docview/304851284?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true
- Chitiyo, G. (2008). Demand for public higher education: An econometric study of price and financial aid in the United States,(2003–2005) (Doctoral dissertation, Tennessee Technological University). https://www.proq uest.co m/docvi ew/250822485?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true
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Allen, D., & Wolniak, G. C. (2019). Exploring the effects of tuition increases on racial/ethnic diversity at public colleges and universities. Research in Higher Education, 60(1), 18-43. https://link.springer.com/article/1 0.1007/s11162-018-9502-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9502-6
An, B. P., & Taylor, J. L. (2019). A review of empirical studies on dual enrollment: Assessing educational outcomes. Higher education: Handbook of theory and research, 99-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03457-3_3
Asghar, Z., & Zahra, M. (2012). A Benefit Incidence Analysis of Public Spending on Education in Pakistan Using PSLM Data. Lahore Journal of Economics, 17(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.35536/lje.2012.v17.i2.a5
Aziz, B., Khan, T., & Aziz, S. (2008). Impact of higher education on economic growth of Pakistan. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/22912/
Binsaeed, R. H. (2015). Foreign direct investment drivers with regard to Saudi Financial Services (Doctoral dissertation, Brunel University London. http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/13585
Birdsall, N. (1996). Public spending on higher education in developing countries: too much or too little?. Economics of Education Review, 15(4), 407-419. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(96)00028-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(96)00028-3
Bishop, J. (1977). The effect of public policies on the demand for higher education. Journal of Human Resources, 285-307. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/145492
Bishop, J. (1977). The effect of public policies on the demand for higher education. Journal of Human Resources, 285-307. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40195749 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/145492
Bright, B. P. (Ed.). (2018). Theory and practice in the study of adult education: The epistemological debate. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429436758
Bruckmeier, K., & Wigger, B. U. (2014). The effects of tuition fees on transition from high school to university in Germany. Economics of education review, 41, 14-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2014.03.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2014.03.009
Campbell, R., & Siegel, B. N. (1967). The demand for higher education in the United States, 1919-1964. The American Economic Review, 57(3), 482-494. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1812115
Chaudhary, A. R., Iqbal, A., & Gillani, S. Y. M. (2009). The nexus between higher education and economic growth: An empirical investigation for Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences (PJCSS), 3, 1-9. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/187991
Cheng, B. (2007). The government-subsidized student loan scheme for college students in China. Harvard University. https://www.proquest.com/docview/304851284?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true
Chitiyo, G. (2008). Demand for public higher education: An econometric study of price and financial aid in the United States,(2003–2005) (Doctoral dissertation, Tennessee Technological University). https://www.proq uest.co m/docvi ew/250822485?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true
Fatimah, A. Engendering Education for Human Capital Accumulation & Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Allama Iqbal Open University from Pakistan.
Feldman, M., Hadjimichael, T., Lanahan, L., & Kemeny, T. (2016). The logic of economic development: a definition and model for investment. Environment and Planning C. Government and Policy, 34(1), 5-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263774X15614653 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0263774X15614653
Galbraith, J. K. (2019). A life in our times. Plunkett Lake Press. Galbraith, J. K. (2019). A life in our times. Plunkett Lake Press.
Ghignoni, E. (2017). Family background and university dropouts during the crisis: the case of Italy. Higher Education, 73(1), 127-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0004-1
Grek, S. (2020). Beyond the standardization versus contextualization debate: the role of the OECD in European education governance. In Shaping Policy Agendas. Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.43 37/9781788976992.00010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788976992.00010
Gyimah-Brempong, K., Paddison, O., & Mitiku, W. (2006). Higher education and economic growth in Africa. The Journal of Development Studies, 42(3), 509-529. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380600576490 . DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380600576490
Heyneman, S. P. (2003). The history and problems in the making of education policy at the World Bank 1960–2000. International journal of educational development, 23(3), 315-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-0593(02)00053-6 . DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-0593(02)00053-6
Hopkins, T. D. (1974). Higher education enrollment demand. Economic Inquiry, 12(1), 53. https://www.proquest.com/openview/20d3cb1f69921251f0c0c7c6d7f19754/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=182 102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.1974.tb00226.x
Hübner, M. (2012). Do tuition fees affect enrollmentbehavior? Evidence from a 'natural experiment'in Germany. Economics of Education Review, 31(6), 949-960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.06.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.06.006
Jackson, G. A., & Weathersby, G. B. (1975). Individual demand for higher education: A review and analysis of recent empirical studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 46(6), 623-652. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00221546.1975.11778666 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1975.11778666
Kaka K. Z, Khan J. M &Khilji A. B (2011). TheRelationship between Education and Economic Growth in Pakistan: A time series analysis. Journal of International Academic Research, 11(1). https://www.researchgate .net/publication/267149981
Kazemi, A. V., & Safari, S. (2020). Travelling concepts: the story of the commodification of higher education in Iran. Critique, 48(4), 405-428. https://doi.org/10.1080/03017605.2020.1850680 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03017605.2020.1850680
Keller, K. R. (2006). Investment in primary, secondary, and higher education and the effects on economic growth. Contemporary Economic Policy, 24(1), 18-34. https://doi.org/10.1093/cep/byj012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/cep/byj012
Khan, N. (2018). Reforming higher education in Pakistan. https://dailytimes.com.pk/245170/reforming-higher-education-in-pakistan/
Khawar, A., Arif, S., & Gull, F. (2021). 18th Amendment, Devolution of Power and Institutional Autonomy of Higher Education in Pakistan: Stakeholders' Perceptions. Research Journal of Social Sciences and Economics Review, 2(2), 47-60. https://doi.org/10.36902/rjsser-vol2-iss2-2021(47-60)
Khushik, F., & Diemer, A. (2018). Critical analysis of education policies in Pakistan: A sustainable development perspective. Social Science Learning Education Journal, 3(09), 01-16. https://doi.org/10.1552 0/sslej.v3i09.2282 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15520/sslej.v3i09.2282
Khushik, F., & Diemer, A. (2018). Critical analysis of education policies in Pakistan: A sustainable development perspective. Social Science Learning Education Journal, 3(09), 01-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15520/sslej.v3i09.2282
Kohn, M. G., Mansk, C. F., & Mundel, D. S. (1976). An empirical investigation of factors which influence college-going behavior. Annals of Economic and Social Measurement, 5(4), 391-419). http://www.nber.o rg/chapters/c12702
Leslie, L. L., & Brinkman, P. T. (1987). Student price response in higher education: The student demand studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 58(2), 181-204. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1987.11778239 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1987.11778239
Lin, T. C. (2004). The role of higher education in economic development: an empirical study of Taiwan case. Journal of Asian Economics, 15(2), 355-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2004.02.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2004.02.006
Malik, A. B. (2011). Policy analysis of education in Punjab Province. Islamabad, Pakistan: UNESCO. Retrieved January, 4, 2017. http://www.unesco.org.pk/education/documents/situationanalysis/Education _Policy_Analysis_for_Punjab.pdf
Malik, S. Y. (2015). Population, Poverty and Gender: A Nexus of Interconnected Issues in Achieving Universal Primary Education in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS), 35(2). https://www.bzu.ed u.pk/PJSS /Vol35No22015/PJSS-Vol35-No2-46.pdf
Manasseh, S. (2020). The impact of the performance-based research fund on accounting academics' life in universities in New Zealand (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Waikato). https://hdl.handle.ne t/10289/13739
Mbiti, I. M. (2016). The need for accountability in education in developing countries. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(3), 109-32. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.30.3.109 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.30.3.109
Menon, M. E., Markadjis, E., Theodoropoulos, N., &Socratous, M. (2017). Influences on the intention to enter higher education: the importance of expected returns. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 41(6), 831-843. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2016.1188897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2016.1188897
Mingat, A., & Tan, J. P. (1986). Financing public higher education in developing countries. Higher Education, 15(3-4), 283-297. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00129217 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00129217
Murphy, R., Scott-Clayton, J., &Wyness, G. (2017). The end of free college in England: Implications for quality, enrolments, and equity (No. w23888). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.o rg/papers/w23888 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3386/w23888
Osoba, A. M., & Tella, S. A. (2017). Human capital variables and economic growth in Nigeria: An interactive effect. EuroEconomica, 36(1). https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=547371
Pasha, H. A. (1995). Political economy of higher education: a study of Pakistan. Pakistan Economic and Social Review, 33(1/2), 19-36. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25825121
Psacharopoulos, G. (1988). Education and development: A review. The World Bank Research Observer, 3(1), 99-116. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/3.1.99 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/3.1.99
Psacharopoulos, G. (2006). The value of investment in education: Theory, evidence, and policy. Journal of Education Finance, 113-136. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40704288
Qazi, W., Sharif, A., & Raza, S. A. (2017). Foreign direct investment and higher education development in Pakistan: Evidence from structural break testing. International Journal of Education Economics and Development, 8(1), 1-21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308929538 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEED.2017.085359
Raza, M. M., Farooq, M., Ahmad, M., & Anwar, S. (2019). Analysis of Higher Education Policies of Pakistan and Suggestions for New Policy. Journal of Educational Sciences, 6(2), 15-36. https://jesar.su.edu.pk/uploa ds/journals/Article_No_02.pdf
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