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VISUAL FRAMING OF ISLAM IN ONLINE NEWSPAPERS: EVIDENCE FROM SELECTED MUSLIM-MAJORITY NATIONS
Corresponding Author(s) : Isyaku Hassan
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 7 No. 6 (2019): November
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study comparatively explores Islam-related visual elements in selected online newspapers from Nigeria and Malaysia.
Methodology: A total of 425 photos and 23 videos published alongside Islam-related news collected from selected online newspapers between November 2015 and September 2016 were analyzed via content analysis.
Main Findings: The findings reveal that 43 out of the total number of photos reproduced violence while no violent videos were found in the select newspapers. It was also found that some of the photos used in the selected newspapers were either unrelated to the event being reported or used in different reports.
Applications: This study could be valuable for practicing journalists in the process of carrying out their jobs. It is also intended to influence the newspaper management decisions on how to disseminate information that is free of bias and maintain accountability for their news.
Novelty/Originality: This study provided evidence on the visual framing of Islam in online newspapers, particularly within Muslim-majority states.
Keywords
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- Abbott, J. P. (2011). Electoral authoritarianism and the print media in Malaysia: Measuring political bias and analyzing its cause. Asian Affairs: An American Review, 38(1): 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00927678.2010.520575 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00927678.2010.520575
- Ahmed, S., &Matthes, J. (2017). Media representation of Muslims and Islam from 2000 to 2015: A meta-analysis. International Communication Gazette, 79(3), 219-244. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048516656305 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048516656305
- Akbarzadeh, S., & Smith, B. (2005). The representation of Islam and Muslims in the media. School of Political and Social Inquiry. Retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/929c/94458efe8f 72c1107eb1a276bd b5a388006d.pdf
- Ali, S., Khalid, M., &Lodhi, M. I. (2009). Negative image of Islam and US mass media: How to improve the image of Islam and Muslim countries. Social Sciences and Humanities, 25(2): 43-49.
- Allen, F. (2014). Islamophobia in the UK: The Role of British Newspapers in Shaping Attitudes towards Islam and Muslims (Doctoral dissertation). University of Wales, United Kingdom.
- Ardèvol-Abreu, A. (2015). Framing theory in communication research. Origins, development and current situation in Spain. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, (70): 423-450. https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2015-1053 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2015-1053
- Asmal, F. (2008). Islamophobia and the media: The portrayal of Islam since 9/11 and an analysis of the Danish cartoon controversy in South Africa (Doctoral dissertation). University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
- Barnett, B. (2003). Guilty and threatening: Visual bias in television news crime stories. Journalism & Communication Monographs, 5(3), 104-155. https://doi.org/10.1177/152263790300500301 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/152263790300500301
- Barrett, A. W., & Barrington, L. W. (2005). Bias in newspaper photograph selection. Political Research Quarterly, 58(4): 609-618. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290505800408 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290505800408
- Borah, P. (2011). Conceptual issues in framing theory: A systematic examination of a decade's literature. Journal of Communication, 61(2), 246-263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01539.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01539.x
- Chen, Y., & Yang, D. Y. (2018). The impact of media censorship: Evidence from a field experiment in China.
- Chibundu, I. S., &Ishak, M. S. A. (2014). A Comparative Analysis of Crisis Reporting in the Malaysian and Nigerian Newspapers. GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC), 1 (1): 80-89. https://doi.org/10.5176/2335-6618_1.1.9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5176/2335-6618_1.1.9
- Cissel, M. (2012). Media Framing: A comparative content analysis on mainstream and alternative news coverage of Occupy Wall Street. The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, 3(1): 67-77.
- Cunningham, S. (1992). Framing Culture: Criticism and Policy in Australia. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
- Dart, J., & Allen, J. R. (2000). Bridging the Gap: Religion and the News Media.Washington, DC: Forum First Amendment Center.
- Eltantawy, N. M. A. (2007). US Newspaper Representation of Muslim and Arab Women Post 9/11. (Doctoral dissertation). Georgia State University, USA.
- Engelhard, C. R., Bartholow, B. D., Kerr, G. T., & Bushman, B. J. (2011). This is your brain on violent video games: Neural desensitization to violence predicts increased aggression following violent video game exposure. Journal of Experimental SocialPsychology, 47(5): 1033-1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.j esp.2011.03.027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.027
- Fairhurst, G. T., &Sarr, R. A. (1996). The Art of Framing: Managing the Language of Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/53.21.2670
- Folarin, B. (1998). Theories of Mass Communication: An Introductory Text. Ibadan: Stirling Horder Publishers (Nig.) Ltd.
- Fourie, P. J. (2001). Media Studies: Institutions, Theories, and Issues.Claremont: Jutaand Company Ltd.
- Freyenberger, D. (2013). Amanda Knox: A Content Analysis of Media Framing in Newspapers around the World(Master’s thesis). East Tennessee State University, USA.
- Gamson,W., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach. The American Journal of Sociology, 95(1), 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1086/229213 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/229213
- Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. New York: Haeper& Row.
- Hassan, I., &Azmi, M. N. L. (2018a). A Comparative Analysis of Visual Agenda-Setting in Reporting Islam. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 8(9), 622-630. 10.18488/journal.1.2018.89.622.630 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3573510
- Hassan, I., &Azmi, M. N. L. (2018b). Readers’ Preferences for Print and Online Newspapers in Northwestern Nigeria. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(6), 965-974. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v8-i6/4294 DOI: https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v8-i6/4294
- Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15 (9): 1277-1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
- Jacobsen, S. J., Jensen, T. G., Vitus, K., &Weibel, K. (2012). Analysis of Danish media setting and framing of Muslims, Islam and racism. Retrieved from:http://www.ces.uc.pt/projectos/tolerace/media/Working%20paper% 205/Analysis%20of%20Danish%20Media%20setting%20and%20framing%20of%20Muslims%20Islam%20and%20racism.pdf
- Kabir, S. (2010). Representation of French Muslim minorities in a New Zealand newspaper. The Journal of the South East Asia Research Centre for Communication and Humanities, 2 (1): 33-46. Retrieved from: http://search.taylors.edu.my/final_pdf/journals/Vol2/Vol2_Mar10_5_J4.pdf
- Lim, J. (2010). Convergence of attention and prominence dimensions of salience among major online newspapers. Journal of Computerâ€Mediated Communication, 15 (2): 293-313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01521.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01521.x
- Lindemann, A., &Stolz, J. (2014). Use of Islam in the definition of foreign otherness in Switzerland: A Comparative analysis of media discourses between 1970 and 20 04. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 2 (1): 44-58. https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.2.1.0044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.2.1.0044
- McCombs, M. & Shaw, D. (1972). The Agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36 (2): 176-187. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/267990
- Michael, R. S. (2001). Crosstabulation& Chi square. Indiana University, Bloomington, Retrieved from: http://www.indiana. edu/~ educy520/sec5982/we ek_12/chi_sq_summary011020. pdf
- Moore, K., Mason, P., & Lewis, J. M. W. (2008). Images of Islam in the UK: The representation of British Muslims in the national print news media 2000-2008. Available: http://orca.cf.ac.uk/id/eprint/18277
- Okwuchukwu, O. G. (2014). The Influence of Media Ownership and Control on Media Agenda Setting in Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 7 (1): 36-45.
- Palys, T. (2008). Purposive sampling. In L. Given (Ed.). The Sage Encyclopaedia of Qualitative Research Methods. (Vol.2) (pp. 697-8). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
- Potter, J. W. (2012). Media Effects. California: SAGE Publication Limited. https://doi.org/10.413 5/9781544308500 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781544308500
- Putnis, P. (1994). Displaced, Re-Cut and Recycled: File Tape in Television News. Gold Coast: Centre for Journalism Research and Education.
- Ramji, R. (2016). From Navy Seals to The Siege: Getting to Know the Muslim Terrorist, Hollywood Style. Journal of Religion & Film, 9 (2): 61-72.
- Razak, R. (2017). Mixing Islam and Terrorism: A Blunder Too Far for Malaysia’s Star? Retrieved from: http://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2096702/mixing-islam-and-terrorism-blunder-too-far-malaysias-star
- Ridgeon, L. (2013). Islamic Interpretations of Christianity.Milton Park: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.43 24/9781315028361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315028361
- Rupar, V. (2012).Getting the facts right: Reporting ethnicity and religion. Druk. Hoeilaart, International Federation of Journalists: Brussels: International Federation of Journals.
- Saidu, S. (2014). A comparative analysis of production sharing contracts of selected developing countries: Nigeria, Indonesia, Malaysia and Equatorial Guinea. Journal of Finance and Accounting, 2 (2): 34-40.10.12691/jfa-2-2-2
- Thomas R. L. (2014). Monopolizing the Nation: Soft Censorship in Malaysia. World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA). Retrieved from: http://www.wan-ifra.org/articles/2014 /12/18/monopolizing-the-nation-soft-censorshipmalaysia
- Thompson, P. M. (2013). Allen's Islamophobia and the British news media: A critical Evaluation of Islamophobia as a Concept and its Application to the Written News Media in Britain between 2001 and 2008 (Master’s Thesis). University of Wales, UK.
- Top newspapers in Malaysia by 2016 newspaper web ranking(2016). Retrieved from International Media and Newspapers website: http://www.4imn.com/
- Top Ten Nigerian Newspapers (2017). Retrieved from Answers Africa website: http: //answersafrica .com/top-10-nigerian-newspapers-most-read-online.html
- Thussu, D. K. (2011). How media terrorism manipulates Truth. Economic and Political Weekly, 32 (6): 264–267.
- Vince, M. (2013). We Don’t Make Life, We Reflect It’ Eastenders’(Master’s thesis). Cardiff University, United Kingdom.
- Wang, X. (2003). Media Ownership and Objectivity (Master’s Thesis). Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.
- Yusof, S. H., Hassan, F., Hassan, M. S., & Osman, M. N. (2013).The framing of international media on Islam and terrorism. European Scientific Journal, 9(8): 104-121. Retrieved from: https://eujournal.org/index.ph p/esj/article/view/881
- Zhang, Y., &Wildemuth, B. M. (2009). Qualitative analysis of content. Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science, 1(2): 308319.
References
Abbott, J. P. (2011). Electoral authoritarianism and the print media in Malaysia: Measuring political bias and analyzing its cause. Asian Affairs: An American Review, 38(1): 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00927678.2010.520575 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00927678.2010.520575
Ahmed, S., &Matthes, J. (2017). Media representation of Muslims and Islam from 2000 to 2015: A meta-analysis. International Communication Gazette, 79(3), 219-244. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048516656305 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048516656305
Akbarzadeh, S., & Smith, B. (2005). The representation of Islam and Muslims in the media. School of Political and Social Inquiry. Retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/929c/94458efe8f 72c1107eb1a276bd b5a388006d.pdf
Ali, S., Khalid, M., &Lodhi, M. I. (2009). Negative image of Islam and US mass media: How to improve the image of Islam and Muslim countries. Social Sciences and Humanities, 25(2): 43-49.
Allen, F. (2014). Islamophobia in the UK: The Role of British Newspapers in Shaping Attitudes towards Islam and Muslims (Doctoral dissertation). University of Wales, United Kingdom.
Ardèvol-Abreu, A. (2015). Framing theory in communication research. Origins, development and current situation in Spain. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, (70): 423-450. https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2015-1053 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2015-1053
Asmal, F. (2008). Islamophobia and the media: The portrayal of Islam since 9/11 and an analysis of the Danish cartoon controversy in South Africa (Doctoral dissertation). University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Barnett, B. (2003). Guilty and threatening: Visual bias in television news crime stories. Journalism & Communication Monographs, 5(3), 104-155. https://doi.org/10.1177/152263790300500301 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/152263790300500301
Barrett, A. W., & Barrington, L. W. (2005). Bias in newspaper photograph selection. Political Research Quarterly, 58(4): 609-618. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290505800408 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290505800408
Borah, P. (2011). Conceptual issues in framing theory: A systematic examination of a decade's literature. Journal of Communication, 61(2), 246-263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01539.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01539.x
Chen, Y., & Yang, D. Y. (2018). The impact of media censorship: Evidence from a field experiment in China.
Chibundu, I. S., &Ishak, M. S. A. (2014). A Comparative Analysis of Crisis Reporting in the Malaysian and Nigerian Newspapers. GSTF Journal on Media & Communications (JMC), 1 (1): 80-89. https://doi.org/10.5176/2335-6618_1.1.9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5176/2335-6618_1.1.9
Cissel, M. (2012). Media Framing: A comparative content analysis on mainstream and alternative news coverage of Occupy Wall Street. The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, 3(1): 67-77.
Cunningham, S. (1992). Framing Culture: Criticism and Policy in Australia. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Dart, J., & Allen, J. R. (2000). Bridging the Gap: Religion and the News Media.Washington, DC: Forum First Amendment Center.
Eltantawy, N. M. A. (2007). US Newspaper Representation of Muslim and Arab Women Post 9/11. (Doctoral dissertation). Georgia State University, USA.
Engelhard, C. R., Bartholow, B. D., Kerr, G. T., & Bushman, B. J. (2011). This is your brain on violent video games: Neural desensitization to violence predicts increased aggression following violent video game exposure. Journal of Experimental SocialPsychology, 47(5): 1033-1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.j esp.2011.03.027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.027
Fairhurst, G. T., &Sarr, R. A. (1996). The Art of Framing: Managing the Language of Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/53.21.2670
Folarin, B. (1998). Theories of Mass Communication: An Introductory Text. Ibadan: Stirling Horder Publishers (Nig.) Ltd.
Fourie, P. J. (2001). Media Studies: Institutions, Theories, and Issues.Claremont: Jutaand Company Ltd.
Freyenberger, D. (2013). Amanda Knox: A Content Analysis of Media Framing in Newspapers around the World(Master’s thesis). East Tennessee State University, USA.
Gamson,W., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach. The American Journal of Sociology, 95(1), 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1086/229213 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/229213
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. New York: Haeper& Row.
Hassan, I., &Azmi, M. N. L. (2018a). A Comparative Analysis of Visual Agenda-Setting in Reporting Islam. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 8(9), 622-630. 10.18488/journal.1.2018.89.622.630 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3573510
Hassan, I., &Azmi, M. N. L. (2018b). Readers’ Preferences for Print and Online Newspapers in Northwestern Nigeria. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(6), 965-974. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v8-i6/4294 DOI: https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v8-i6/4294
Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15 (9): 1277-1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
Jacobsen, S. J., Jensen, T. G., Vitus, K., &Weibel, K. (2012). Analysis of Danish media setting and framing of Muslims, Islam and racism. Retrieved from:http://www.ces.uc.pt/projectos/tolerace/media/Working%20paper% 205/Analysis%20of%20Danish%20Media%20setting%20and%20framing%20of%20Muslims%20Islam%20and%20racism.pdf
Kabir, S. (2010). Representation of French Muslim minorities in a New Zealand newspaper. The Journal of the South East Asia Research Centre for Communication and Humanities, 2 (1): 33-46. Retrieved from: http://search.taylors.edu.my/final_pdf/journals/Vol2/Vol2_Mar10_5_J4.pdf
Lim, J. (2010). Convergence of attention and prominence dimensions of salience among major online newspapers. Journal of Computerâ€Mediated Communication, 15 (2): 293-313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01521.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01521.x
Lindemann, A., &Stolz, J. (2014). Use of Islam in the definition of foreign otherness in Switzerland: A Comparative analysis of media discourses between 1970 and 20 04. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 2 (1): 44-58. https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.2.1.0044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.2.1.0044
McCombs, M. & Shaw, D. (1972). The Agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36 (2): 176-187. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/267990
Michael, R. S. (2001). Crosstabulation& Chi square. Indiana University, Bloomington, Retrieved from: http://www.indiana. edu/~ educy520/sec5982/we ek_12/chi_sq_summary011020. pdf
Moore, K., Mason, P., & Lewis, J. M. W. (2008). Images of Islam in the UK: The representation of British Muslims in the national print news media 2000-2008. Available: http://orca.cf.ac.uk/id/eprint/18277
Okwuchukwu, O. G. (2014). The Influence of Media Ownership and Control on Media Agenda Setting in Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 7 (1): 36-45.
Palys, T. (2008). Purposive sampling. In L. Given (Ed.). The Sage Encyclopaedia of Qualitative Research Methods. (Vol.2) (pp. 697-8). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
Potter, J. W. (2012). Media Effects. California: SAGE Publication Limited. https://doi.org/10.413 5/9781544308500 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781544308500
Putnis, P. (1994). Displaced, Re-Cut and Recycled: File Tape in Television News. Gold Coast: Centre for Journalism Research and Education.
Ramji, R. (2016). From Navy Seals to The Siege: Getting to Know the Muslim Terrorist, Hollywood Style. Journal of Religion & Film, 9 (2): 61-72.
Razak, R. (2017). Mixing Islam and Terrorism: A Blunder Too Far for Malaysia’s Star? Retrieved from: http://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2096702/mixing-islam-and-terrorism-blunder-too-far-malaysias-star
Ridgeon, L. (2013). Islamic Interpretations of Christianity.Milton Park: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.43 24/9781315028361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315028361
Rupar, V. (2012).Getting the facts right: Reporting ethnicity and religion. Druk. Hoeilaart, International Federation of Journalists: Brussels: International Federation of Journals.
Saidu, S. (2014). A comparative analysis of production sharing contracts of selected developing countries: Nigeria, Indonesia, Malaysia and Equatorial Guinea. Journal of Finance and Accounting, 2 (2): 34-40.10.12691/jfa-2-2-2
Thomas R. L. (2014). Monopolizing the Nation: Soft Censorship in Malaysia. World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA). Retrieved from: http://www.wan-ifra.org/articles/2014 /12/18/monopolizing-the-nation-soft-censorshipmalaysia
Thompson, P. M. (2013). Allen's Islamophobia and the British news media: A critical Evaluation of Islamophobia as a Concept and its Application to the Written News Media in Britain between 2001 and 2008 (Master’s Thesis). University of Wales, UK.
Top newspapers in Malaysia by 2016 newspaper web ranking(2016). Retrieved from International Media and Newspapers website: http://www.4imn.com/
Top Ten Nigerian Newspapers (2017). Retrieved from Answers Africa website: http: //answersafrica .com/top-10-nigerian-newspapers-most-read-online.html
Thussu, D. K. (2011). How media terrorism manipulates Truth. Economic and Political Weekly, 32 (6): 264–267.
Vince, M. (2013). We Don’t Make Life, We Reflect It’ Eastenders’(Master’s thesis). Cardiff University, United Kingdom.
Wang, X. (2003). Media Ownership and Objectivity (Master’s Thesis). Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.
Yusof, S. H., Hassan, F., Hassan, M. S., & Osman, M. N. (2013).The framing of international media on Islam and terrorism. European Scientific Journal, 9(8): 104-121. Retrieved from: https://eujournal.org/index.ph p/esj/article/view/881
Zhang, Y., &Wildemuth, B. M. (2009). Qualitative analysis of content. Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science, 1(2): 308319.