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A NEXUS BETWEEN HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS AND WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT: A CASE STUDY OF PUNJAB, PAKISTAN
Corresponding Author(s) : Hafsa Batool
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 2 (2021): March
Abstract
Purpose of the study: The empowerment of women is an important aim for them to be fully engaged in economic life and to achieve sustainable growth worldwide. One form of empowerment is to provide women with basic facilities.
Methodology: The study also analyzed the impact on women's empowerment by primary data taken via multi-phase cluster sampling methods of household socio-economic and cultural characteristics in Punjab. Given the diversity of nature and context, the 6-dimensional empirical polychoric principles of empowering women generate a stringent cumulative index of women's autonomy.
Main Findings: The empirical findings show that empowering women and their six-dimensional effects are positive for women's years and jobs, legal advertisements, health care institutions, social participation, safe, smooth surroundings, communication, politics and residential negative participation, unpaid housekeeping, and the fear of violence. The results show that women's empowerment is positive.
Applications of this study: This study can be more effective in the manner that to offer women free advice about their rights through electronic media, the government should establish an integrated legal cell with the local government.
Novelty/Originality of this study: This research contribution in the field of women empowerment that how women can deal with legal advisory, to get jobs, protection in health and institutions.
Keywords
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- Abrar-ul-haq, M., Jali, M. R. M., & Islam, G. M. N. (2017). Empowering rural women in Pakistan: Empirical evidence from Southern Punjab. Quality & Quantity, 51(4), 1777–1787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-016-0365-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-016-0365-7
- Acker, D., & Gasperini, L. (2009). Education for rural people: The role of education, training and capacity development in poverty reduction and food security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
- Alkire, S., Foster, J., & Santos, M. E. (2011). Where did identification go? The Journal of Economic Inequality, 9(3), 501–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-011-9201-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-011-9201-4
- Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A. R., Seymour, G., & Vaz, A. (2013, February). The women’s empowerment in agriculture index (Working Paper No. 58). Oxford: Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative. https://doi.org/10.35648/20.500.12413/11781/ii033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35648/20.500.12413/11781/ii033
- Alkire, S., & Roche, J. M. (2012). Beyond headcount: The Alkire-Foster approach to multidimensional child poverty measurement. In I. Ortiz, L. M. Daniels, & S. Engilbertsdóttir (Eds.), Child poverty and inequality: New perspectives (pp. 18–22). New York, NY: UNICEF Division of Policy and Practice.
- Allendorf, K. (2007). Do women’s land rights promote empowerment and child health in Nepal? World Development, 35(11), 1975–1988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.12.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.12.005
- Amnesty International. (2008). Amnesty International Report 2008: The state of world human rights. London: Amnesty International Secretariat.
- Angelucci, M., & Heath, R. (2020, May). Women empowerment programs and intimate partner violence. In AEA Papers and Proceedings, 110, pp. 610-14. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20201047 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20201047
- Ashfaq, M., Ashiq, H., Baig, I. A., & Saghir, A. (2008). Contribution of rural women in the farm productivity. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 18(4), 142–144.
- Asterious, D., & Hall, S. G. (2011). Applied econometrics (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
- Awan, A. G., & Iqbal, D. (2015). Role of microfinance in poverty alleviation: Evidence from Pakistan. American Journal of Trade and Policy, 2(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.18034/ajtp.v2i1.381 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18034/ajtp.v2i1.381
- Baig, I. A., Batool, Z., Ali, A., Baig, S. A., Hashim, M., & Zia-ur-Rehman, M. (2018). Impact of women empowerment on rural development in Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Quality & Quantity, 52(4), 1861–1872. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0572-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0572-x
- Baker, W., & Fang, F. (2021). ‘So maybe I’ma global citizen’: developing intercultural citizenship in English medium education. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 34(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2020.1748045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2020.1748045
- Chaudhary, I. S., & Nosheen, F. (2009). The determinants of women empowerment in Southern Punjab (Pakistan): An empirical analysis. European Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2), 216–229.
- Chaudhry, I. S., Nosheen, F., & Lodhi, M. I. (2012). Women empowerment in Pakistan with spe- cial reference to Islamic viewpoint: An empirical study. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 32(1), 171–183.
- Cislaghi, B., & Heise, L. (2020). Gender norms and social norms: differences, similarities and why they matter in prevention science. Sociology of health & illness, 42(2), 407-422. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13008
- Czymara, C. S., Langenkamp, A., & Cano, T. (2021). Cause for concerns: gender inequality in experiencing the COVID-19 lockdown in Germany. European Societies, 23(sup1), S68-S81. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1808692 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1808692
- Downer, S., Berkowitz, S. A., Harlan, T. S., Olstad, D. L., & Mozaffarian, D. (2020). Food is medicine: actions to integrate food and nutrition into healthcare. bmj, 369. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m2482 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m2482
- Eberharter, V. V. (2001). Gender roles, labour market participation and household income position. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 12(3), 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0954-349X(01)00021-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0954-349X(01)00021-2
- Figlio, D., Karbownik, K., Roth, J., & Wasserman, M. (2019). Family disadvantage and the gender gap in behavioral and educational outcomes. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 11(3), 338-81. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170571 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170571
- Grigoleit-Richter, G. (2017). Highly skilled and highly mobile? Examining gendered and ethnicised labour market conditions for migrant women in STEM-professions in Germany. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43(16), 2738-2755. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1314597 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1314597
- Kabeer, N. (2001). Conflicts over credit: Reevaluating the empowerment potential of loans to women in rural Bangladesh. World Development, 29(1), 63–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00081-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00081-4
- Kang, J. (2017). Evaluating labor force participation of women in Japan and Korea: Developments and future prospects. Asian Journal of Women’s Studies, 23(3), 294–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2017.1351589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2017.1351589
- Khan, S., Rehman, H., & Sajid, M. E. (2011). Microcredit and women’s empowerment in district Gujrat, Pakistan. Biannual Journal of Gender and Social Issues, 10(2), 9–24.
- Lahoti, R., & Swaminathan, H. (2016). Economic development and women’s labor force participa- tion in India. Feminist Economics, 22(2), 168–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1066022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1066022
- Lewellyn, K. B., & Muller-Kahle, M. I. (2020). The corporate board glass ceiling: The role of empowerment and culture in shaping board gender diversity. Journal of Business Ethics, 165(2), 329-346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04116-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04116-9
- Maslak, M. A., & Singhal, G. (2008). The identity of educated women in India: Confluence or divergence? Gender and Education, 20(5), 481–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701829961 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701829961
- Mohyuddin, A., Chaudhary, H. R., & Ambreen, M. (2012). Contribution of women in economic activities in rural Balochistan: World system analysis at micro level in anthropological perspective. Academic Research International, 3(2), 548–556.
- Mosedale, S. (2005). Policy arena, assessing women’s empowerment: Towards a conceptual frame- work. Journal of International Development, 17(2), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1212 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1212
- Murphy, G. E. (2008). Opening minds, improving lives: Education and women’s empowerment in Honduras. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.
- Naz, F. (2006). Pathways to women’s empowerment in Bangladesh. Dhaka: AH Development Publish- ing House.
- Qamar, M. K. (2005). Modernizing national agricultural extension systems: A practical guide for policy-makers of developing countries. Rome: FAO. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/ 008/a0219e/a0219e00.htm
- Rizvi, F. (1980, March–April). Background of vocational education for girls. Proceedings of the national Conference on critical issues concerning women in education. Islamabad, Pakistan: Gov- ernment of Pakistan, Women’s Division.
- Rowland, J. (1997). Questioning empowerment: Working with women in Holland. Amsterdam: Oxfam. https://doi.org/10.3362/9780855988364 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3362/9780855988364
- Shah, N. A. (2002). Changing role of women in Pakistan: A study of social and economic activi- ties of women entrepreneurs (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan.
- Shahbaz, B., Naz, M., Umber, S., & Amir, R. M. (2017). Determinants of women’s empowerment and poverty reduction: A case study of rural Faisalabad, Punjab. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 54(1), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.21162/PAKJAS/17.4563 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21162/PAKJAS/17.4563
- Sharma, U. (2003). Women empowerment through information technology. New Delhi: Authorpress. Sridevi, T. O. (2005). Empowerment of women-A systematic analysis. India Development Foundation,Tamil Nadu, June. Retrieved from http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Townsend, B., Schram, A., Baum, F., Labonté, R., & Friel, S. (2020). How does policy framing enable or constrain inclusion of social determinants of health and health equity on trade policy agendas?. Critical Public Health, 30(1), 115-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2018.1509059 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2018.1509059
- Swain, R. B. (2006). Microfinance and women’s empowerment evidence from the self-help group bank linkage programme in India. Division for Market Development.
- Tsani, S., Paroussos, L., Fragiadakis, C., Charalambidis, I., & Capros, P. (2013). Female labour force participation and economic growth in the south Mediterranean countries. Economics Letters, 120(2), 323–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.04.043 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.04.043
- UNDP, (2010). Human development report. New York.
- UNICEF. (1994a). Situation analysis of women and children in Vietnam. Hanoi.
- UNICEF Vietnam. UNICEF. (1994b). The state of the world’s children. New York, NY: UNICEF.
- Varghese, T. (2011). Women empowerment in Oman: A study based on women empowerment index. Far East Journal of Psychology and Business, 2(2), 37–53.
- Yamauchi, F., & Liu, Y. (2018). Gender asymmetries: Impacts of an early-stage school intervention in the Philippines. Review of Development Economics, 22(1), 220–241. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12337 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12337
- Young, K. (1993). Planning development with women: Making a world of difference. London: Macmil- lan.
- Yount, K. M., Crandall, A., & Cheong, Y. F. (2018). Women’s age at first marriage and long-term economic empowerment in Egypt. World Development, 102, 124-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.09.013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.09.013
References
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Acker, D., & Gasperini, L. (2009). Education for rural people: The role of education, training and capacity development in poverty reduction and food security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
Alkire, S., Foster, J., & Santos, M. E. (2011). Where did identification go? The Journal of Economic Inequality, 9(3), 501–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-011-9201-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-011-9201-4
Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A. R., Seymour, G., & Vaz, A. (2013, February). The women’s empowerment in agriculture index (Working Paper No. 58). Oxford: Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative. https://doi.org/10.35648/20.500.12413/11781/ii033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35648/20.500.12413/11781/ii033
Alkire, S., & Roche, J. M. (2012). Beyond headcount: The Alkire-Foster approach to multidimensional child poverty measurement. In I. Ortiz, L. M. Daniels, & S. Engilbertsdóttir (Eds.), Child poverty and inequality: New perspectives (pp. 18–22). New York, NY: UNICEF Division of Policy and Practice.
Allendorf, K. (2007). Do women’s land rights promote empowerment and child health in Nepal? World Development, 35(11), 1975–1988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.12.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.12.005
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Asterious, D., & Hall, S. G. (2011). Applied econometrics (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
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Eberharter, V. V. (2001). Gender roles, labour market participation and household income position. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 12(3), 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0954-349X(01)00021-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0954-349X(01)00021-2
Figlio, D., Karbownik, K., Roth, J., & Wasserman, M. (2019). Family disadvantage and the gender gap in behavioral and educational outcomes. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 11(3), 338-81. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170571 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170571
Grigoleit-Richter, G. (2017). Highly skilled and highly mobile? Examining gendered and ethnicised labour market conditions for migrant women in STEM-professions in Germany. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43(16), 2738-2755. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1314597 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1314597
Kabeer, N. (2001). Conflicts over credit: Reevaluating the empowerment potential of loans to women in rural Bangladesh. World Development, 29(1), 63–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00081-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00081-4
Kang, J. (2017). Evaluating labor force participation of women in Japan and Korea: Developments and future prospects. Asian Journal of Women’s Studies, 23(3), 294–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2017.1351589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2017.1351589
Khan, S., Rehman, H., & Sajid, M. E. (2011). Microcredit and women’s empowerment in district Gujrat, Pakistan. Biannual Journal of Gender and Social Issues, 10(2), 9–24.
Lahoti, R., & Swaminathan, H. (2016). Economic development and women’s labor force participa- tion in India. Feminist Economics, 22(2), 168–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1066022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1066022
Lewellyn, K. B., & Muller-Kahle, M. I. (2020). The corporate board glass ceiling: The role of empowerment and culture in shaping board gender diversity. Journal of Business Ethics, 165(2), 329-346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04116-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04116-9
Maslak, M. A., & Singhal, G. (2008). The identity of educated women in India: Confluence or divergence? Gender and Education, 20(5), 481–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701829961 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250701829961
Mohyuddin, A., Chaudhary, H. R., & Ambreen, M. (2012). Contribution of women in economic activities in rural Balochistan: World system analysis at micro level in anthropological perspective. Academic Research International, 3(2), 548–556.
Mosedale, S. (2005). Policy arena, assessing women’s empowerment: Towards a conceptual frame- work. Journal of International Development, 17(2), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1212 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1212
Murphy, G. E. (2008). Opening minds, improving lives: Education and women’s empowerment in Honduras. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.
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Rowland, J. (1997). Questioning empowerment: Working with women in Holland. Amsterdam: Oxfam. https://doi.org/10.3362/9780855988364 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3362/9780855988364
Shah, N. A. (2002). Changing role of women in Pakistan: A study of social and economic activi- ties of women entrepreneurs (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan.
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Sharma, U. (2003). Women empowerment through information technology. New Delhi: Authorpress. Sridevi, T. O. (2005). Empowerment of women-A systematic analysis. India Development Foundation,Tamil Nadu, June. Retrieved from http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Townsend, B., Schram, A., Baum, F., Labonté, R., & Friel, S. (2020). How does policy framing enable or constrain inclusion of social determinants of health and health equity on trade policy agendas?. Critical Public Health, 30(1), 115-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2018.1509059 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2018.1509059
Swain, R. B. (2006). Microfinance and women’s empowerment evidence from the self-help group bank linkage programme in India. Division for Market Development.
Tsani, S., Paroussos, L., Fragiadakis, C., Charalambidis, I., & Capros, P. (2013). Female labour force participation and economic growth in the south Mediterranean countries. Economics Letters, 120(2), 323–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.04.043 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.04.043
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Varghese, T. (2011). Women empowerment in Oman: A study based on women empowerment index. Far East Journal of Psychology and Business, 2(2), 37–53.
Yamauchi, F., & Liu, Y. (2018). Gender asymmetries: Impacts of an early-stage school intervention in the Philippines. Review of Development Economics, 22(1), 220–241. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12337 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12337
Young, K. (1993). Planning development with women: Making a world of difference. London: Macmil- lan.
Yount, K. M., Crandall, A., & Cheong, Y. F. (2018). Women’s age at first marriage and long-term economic empowerment in Egypt. World Development, 102, 124-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.09.013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.09.013