Issue
Authors retain the copyright without restrictions for their published content in this journal. HSSR is a SHERPA ROMEO Green Journal.
Publishing License
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
MEDIA IMAGES OF THE ARMED FORCES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AMERICAN, INDIAN AND PAKISTANI PRESS
Corresponding Author(s) : Muhammad Riaz Raza
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study aims to analyze and compare the media images and coverage of three countries regarding their security forces. For this purpose, researchers have examined the media image of the American Army in the New York Times, the Indian Army in Indian Express, and the Pakistani Army in The Dawn.
Methodology: The researchers selected news stories of three sampled newspapers; New York Times, Indian Express, and The Dawn for one year from 1st January 2018 to 31st December 2018 purposively for the content analysis. Spearman correlations, central tendency, frames of the stories in terms of positive, negative, and neutral have been examined. The researchers have examined coverage patterns of security forces at the object, attribute, and network levels in the light of agenda-setting theory.
Main Findings: There are significant differences in the image of the armed forces. Indian Express covered the Indian army positively with the special emphasis on the success of the armed in internal military operations and the glorification of the military leadership. Similarly, New York Times covered the American Army favourably with a particular focus on external military operations for peace and security purposes. Whereas, The Dawn covered Pakistan Army differently.
Applications of this study: The study will be helpful and of great importance for media owners, media regulatory bodies, military establishments, foreign and international relations. The study will also be a significant contribution towards civil-military relationships in geostrategic locations of the sub-continent. Since these countries have been involved in war-on-terror in this region as far as peace and stability are concerned, the study will be a roadmap for the peacekeeping forces.
Novelty/Originality of this study: Few research studies have been witnessed so far on the media image of these countries. This study is new and different in nature as the military image of three different countries in terms of civil-military relationship has been measured on their mainstream media.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Adegbola, O. W (2020). Examining determinants of adherence to peace journalism: Empathy, reporting efficacy, and perceived journalistic roles. Media, War & Conflict. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635220948548 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635220948548
- Allan, S., & Zelizer, B. (2004). Reporting war: Journalism in wartime: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.432 4/9780203497562 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203497562
- Anstead, N., & O'Loughlin, B. (2014). Social media analysis and public opinion: The 2010 UK general election. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20(2), 204-220. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12102
- Ashcroft, M. (2012). The Armed Forces and Society: The Military in Britain through the eyes of Service personnel, employers and the public. Biteback Publishing.
- Ashraf, M., & Islam, M. U. (2014). Media Activism and its Impacts on the Psychology of Pakistani Society. ISSRA Papers, 6(3). Available at https://ndu.edu.pk/issra/issra_pub/articles/issra-paper/ISSRA_Papers_Vol 6_IssueI_2014/03-Media-Activism-Muhammad-Ashraf.pdf
- Awobamise, A., Jarrar, Y., & Owade, J. (2020). An analysis of media reportage of conflict during the 2007, 2013, and 2017 Kenyan presidential elections: a peace journalism approach. University And Society, 12(2), 184-191. Available at https://rus.ucf.edu.cu/index.php/rus/article/view/1506
- Bali, P. S. (2015). Portrayal of Indian Army in Kashmir Media: An Analytical Study of Local Newspapers. International Journal of Media, Journalism and Mass Communications, 2(1), 51-57. https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-9479.0202005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-9479.0202005
- Baran, S., & Davis, D. (2010). Mass communication theory: Foundations, ferment, and future (6th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth.
- Best, M. L., Long, W. J., Etherton, J., & Smyth, T. (2011). Rich digital media as a tool in post-conflict truth and reconciliation. Media, War & Conflict, 4(3), 231-249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635211420628 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635211420628
- Butts, C. T. (2008). Social network analysis: A methodological introduction. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 11(1), 13-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2007.00241.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2007.00241.x
- Chaudhry, S., & Ali, S. (2012). Public Perception about Policies and Practices of ISPR on War on Terror with Special Reference to Military Action in Tribal Areas of Pakistan. Dialogue, 7(2), 103-137.
- Cheng, Y., & Chan, C.-M. (2015). The third level of agenda-setting in contemporary China: Tracking descriptions of moral and national education (MNE) in media coverage and people’s minds. International Journal of Communication, 9, 1090-1107.
- Christian, R., Stefan, S., & Muhammad, I. (2020) Social media in conflicts and crises. Behaviour & Information Technology, 39(3), 241-251, https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2019.1629025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2019.1629025
- Daud, B. (2020). Perception of Afghanistan in the Western Media. Available at http://dspace.jgu.e du.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10739/3705/1/Perception%20of%20Afghanistan%20in%20the%20Western%20Media.pdf
- De Nooy, W., Mrvar, A., & Batagelj, V. (2011). Exploratory social network analysis with Pajek (2nd ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511996368 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511996368
- Datsko, Oleh-Semen. (2020). The Language of War: Framing Enemy Images in Russian Online Media. Helsingin yliopisto Publishers. Available at http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:hulib-202006223286
- Dawn (2021). Backdoor Channels with PDM. An article published in Daily Dawn. Available at https://www.dawn.com/news/1606205
- Graber, D. A., & Smith, J. M. (2005). Political communication faces the 21st century. Journal of communication, 55(3), 479-507. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02682.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02682.x
- Guo, L. (2012). The application of social network analysis in agenda-setting research: A methodological exploration. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 56(4), 616-631. https://doi.org/10.1080/0883 8151.2012.732148 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2012.732148
- Guo, L., Vu, H. T., & McCombs, M. (2012). An expanded perspective on agenda-setting effects: Exploring the third level of agenda-setting. Revista de Comunicación, 11, 51-68.
- Hadyniak, K. (2015). How Journalism Influenced American Public Opinion During the Vietnam War: A Case Study of the Battle of Ap Bac, The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, The Tet Offensive, and the My Lai Massacre. Honors College. 222. Available at https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/honors/222
- Happer, C., & Philo, G. (2013). The role of the media in the construction of public belief and social change. Journal of social and political psychology, 1(1), 321-336. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v1i1.96 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v1i1.96
- Heim, K. (2010). The boys on the blogs: Intermedia agenda-setting in the 2008 US presidential campaign. (Doctoral Thesis), University of Missouri--Columbia.
- Herf, J. (2006). The Jewish Enemy: Nazi propaganda during world war II and the holocaust. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674038592 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674038592
- Hines, L. A., Gribble, R., Wessely, S., Dandeker, C., & Fear, N. T. (2015). Are the armed forces understood and supported by the public? A view from the United Kingdom. Armed Forces & Society, 41(4), 688-713. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X14559975 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X14559975
- Hussain, S. (2016). Media coverage of Taliban: is peace journalism the solution? Asia Pacific media educator, 26(1), 31-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/1326365X16640340 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1326365X16640340
- Hussain, S., Siraj, S.A., Mahmood, T. (2019). Evaluating war and peace potential of Pakistani news media: Advancing a peace journalism model. Information Development, 37(1),105-121. https://doi.org/10.1177/02 66666919893416 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0266666919893416
- Iftikhar, A., & Shafiq, S. (2019). The Portrayal of Pak-US Relations in Print Media: An Analysis of War on Terror and Militancy in Pakistan during the Republican and the Democratic Regimes. Global Regional Review (GRR), 4(3), 10-19. https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2019(IV-III).02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2019(IV-III).02
- Ishaq, N., Saleem, N., & Mian, H. A. (2018). Media an agent of Peace or war? A study of The Economist, The Herald and Time during American Armed Operations in Pakistan. Pakistan Vision, 19(1), 76-93.
- Javaid, U. (2015). Operation Zarb-e-Azb: A Successful Initiative to Curtail Terrorism. South Asian Studies. 30(2), 43–58. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309556452_Operation_Zarb-e-Azb_A_Successful_Initiative_to_Curtail_Terrorism#fullTextFileContent
- Khan, A. (2018). Zarb-e-Azb Operation: Agenda-Setting Role of Newspapers on a National Issue in Pakistan. Journal of Media Studies, 33(2), 41-59. http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/ICS/PDF/03_V_33_2_2018.pdf
- Khan, M.K. & Pratt, C.B. (2020). Strategic communications: The Pakistan military’s use of social media against terrorism. Medi. War & Conflict. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635220972127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635220972127
- Khan, S., & Akhtar, N. (2016). Operation Zarb-e-Azb: An Analysis of Media Coverage. Strategic Studies, 36(1), 114-127. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/e48501859
- Le, S. (2016). The Relationship Between the Media and the Military. (Master's Thesis). Harvard University, Cambridge, US.
- Lee, J. H., & Hahn, K. T. (2014). Factors Influencing the Agenda-Setting Effects of Newspapers on Their Subscribers. Media Economy and Culture, 12(1), 192-233.
- Manzoor, S., Shahzadi, I., & Bhatti, A. M. (2021). US Media’s Agenda-Setting: Analysis of Editorial Presentations of Pakistan. Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 5(I). https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2021(5-I)23 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2021(5-I)23
- Marin, A., & Wellman, B. (2011). Social Network Analysis: An Introduction. In J. Scott & P. J. Carrington (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis (pp. 11-25). London: Sage Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446294413.n2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446294413.n2
- McCombes, M., Lopez-Escobar, E., & Llamas, J. P. (2006). Setting the agenda of attributes in the 1996 Spanish general election. Journal of communication, 50(2), 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02842.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02842.x
- McCombs, M. (2005). A look at agenda-setting: Past, present, and future. Journalism Studies, 6(4), 543-557. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616700500250438 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616700500250438
- McQuail, D. (2010). McQuail's Mass Communication Theory. Washington: DC: Sage publications.
- Nišić, V., & Plavšić, D. (2017). The role of media in the construction of social reality. Sociological Discourse, 4(7), 73-81. https://doi.org/10.7251/SOCEN1407073N DOI: https://doi.org/10.7251/SOCEN1407073N
- Oram, S. S. (1993). Telling the Story: Impact of Military-Media Relations on the Operational Commander: Naval War Coll Newport RI Dept of Operations. https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA264285 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA264285
- Parrott, S., Albright, D. L., Dyche, C., & Steele, H. G. (2018). Hero, Charity Case, and Victim: How US News Media Frame Military Veterans on Twitter. Armed Forces & Society, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095 327X18784238
- Payne, K. (2005). The Media as an Instrument of War. The US Army War College Quarterly: Parameters 35,
- (1), 81-93. Available at https://press.armywarcollege.edu/parameters/vol35/iss1/10
- Powell, L. (2014). Glorification of the Military in Popular Culture and the Media. In M. C. Forte (Ed.), Good Intentions: Norms and Practices of Imperial Humanitarianism, 4, 167-184. Canada: Alert Press.
- Prager, A., & Hameleers, M. (2021). Disseminating information or advocating peace? Journalists’ role perceptions in the face of conflict. Journalism, 22(2), 395–413. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918791788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918791788
- Rahman, B. H., & Eijaz, A. (2014). Pakistani Media as an Agent of Conflict or Conflict Resolution: A Case of Lal Masjid in Urdu and English Dailies. Pakistan Vision, 15(2), 238.
- Ramić, A. (2015). What media wants from a relationship with the Military? Polemos: Äasopis za interdisciplinarna istraživanja rata i mira, 18(35), 75-89.
- Raza, M.R.; Siraj, S.A.; Saeed, U. M. (2020). Image of India and Pakistan in Digital Age: A Comparative Study on Tweets of International News Agencies. International Journal of Distance Education and E-Learning (IJDEEL), VI(I).
- Rill, L. A., & Davis, C. B. (2008). Testing the second level of agenda-setting: Effects of news frames on reader-assigned attributes of Hezbollah and Israel in the 2006 war in Lebanon. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(3), 609-624. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900808500308 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900808500308
- Scholtz, L. (1998). The media and the military: Allies or adversaries? Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies, 28(2), 236-251. https://doi.org/10.5787/28-2-213 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5787/28-2-213
- Seltzer, T., & Dittmore, S. W. (2009). Down, set, frame: second-level agenda building and the NFL network carriage dispute. International Journal of Sport Communication, 2(3), 340-359. https://doi.org/10. 1123/ijsc.2.3.340 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2.3.340
- Sheafer, T., & Weimann, G. (2005). Agenda building, agenda-setting, priming, individual voting intentions, and the aggregate results: An analysis of four Israeli elections. Journal of communication, 55(2), 347-365. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02676.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02676.x
- Stern, SO, Tuckett D, Smith RE, Nyman R (2018). Measuring the Influencers in the News Media’s Narratives In 2018 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis And Mining (ASONAM), 698-701. https://doi.org/10.1109/ASONAM.2018.8508540 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ASONAM.2018.8508540
- Tsfati, Y., & Cohen, J. (2012). Perceptions of media and media effects: The third-person effect, trust in media and hostile media perceptions. In A. N. Valdivia & E. Scharrer (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of media studies. New Jersey, US: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444361506.wbiems995 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444361506.wbiems995
- United Nations (2020). A New Era of Conflict and Violence. Available at https://www.un.org/en/un75/new-era-conflict-and-violence.
- Vargo, C. J., Guo, L., McCombs, M., & Shaw, D. L. (2014). Network issue agendas on Twitter during the 2012 US presidential election. Journal of communication, 64(2), 296-316. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12089
- Vliegenthart, R., & Walgrave, S. (2008). The contingency of intermedia agenda-setting: A longitudinal study in Belgium. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(4), 860-877. https://doi.org/10.1177/10 7769900808500409 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900808500409
- Vu, H. T., Guo, L., & McCombs, M. E. (2014). Exploring “the world outside and the pictures in our heads†A network agenda-setting study. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 91(4), 669-686. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699014550090 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699014550090
- Walgrave, S., Soroka, S., & Nuytemans, M. (2008). The mass media's political agenda-setting power: A longitudinal analysis of media, parliament, and government in Belgium (1993 to 2000). Comparative Political Studies, 41(6), 814-836. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006299098 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006299098
- Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis: Methods and applications. London: Cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815478 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815478
- Wirth, W., Matthes, J., Schemer, C., Wettstein, M., Friemel, T., Hänggli, R., & Siegert, G. (2010). Agenda building and setting in a referendum campaign: Investigating the flow of arguments among campaigners, the media, and the public. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 87(2), 328-345. https://doi.org/10 .1177/107769901008700207 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107769901008700207
- Yang, J. (2008). US, Chinese newspapers frame the Iraq war differently. Newspaper Research Journal, 29(3), 80-93. https://doi.org/10.1177/073953290802900307 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/073953290802900307
- Yousaf, S. (2015). Representation of Pakistan: A Framing Analysis of the Coverage in the US and Chinese News Media Surrounding Operation Zarb-e-Azb. International Journal of Communication, 9, 3042-3064.
- Yousaf, Z., Elahi, H., & Adnan, M. (2018). War and Peace Framing: The Contextual Analysis of Indo-Pak Relations. Strategic Studies, 38(1), 128-144. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/48539127
- Zhang, C., & Meadows III, C. W. (2012). International coverage, foreign policy, and national image: Exploring the complexities of media coverage, public opinion, and presidential agenda. International Journal of Communication, 6, 76-95.
References
Adegbola, O. W (2020). Examining determinants of adherence to peace journalism: Empathy, reporting efficacy, and perceived journalistic roles. Media, War & Conflict. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635220948548 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635220948548
Allan, S., & Zelizer, B. (2004). Reporting war: Journalism in wartime: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.432 4/9780203497562 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203497562
Anstead, N., & O'Loughlin, B. (2014). Social media analysis and public opinion: The 2010 UK general election. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20(2), 204-220. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12102
Ashcroft, M. (2012). The Armed Forces and Society: The Military in Britain through the eyes of Service personnel, employers and the public. Biteback Publishing.
Ashraf, M., & Islam, M. U. (2014). Media Activism and its Impacts on the Psychology of Pakistani Society. ISSRA Papers, 6(3). Available at https://ndu.edu.pk/issra/issra_pub/articles/issra-paper/ISSRA_Papers_Vol 6_IssueI_2014/03-Media-Activism-Muhammad-Ashraf.pdf
Awobamise, A., Jarrar, Y., & Owade, J. (2020). An analysis of media reportage of conflict during the 2007, 2013, and 2017 Kenyan presidential elections: a peace journalism approach. University And Society, 12(2), 184-191. Available at https://rus.ucf.edu.cu/index.php/rus/article/view/1506
Bali, P. S. (2015). Portrayal of Indian Army in Kashmir Media: An Analytical Study of Local Newspapers. International Journal of Media, Journalism and Mass Communications, 2(1), 51-57. https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-9479.0202005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-9479.0202005
Baran, S., & Davis, D. (2010). Mass communication theory: Foundations, ferment, and future (6th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth.
Best, M. L., Long, W. J., Etherton, J., & Smyth, T. (2011). Rich digital media as a tool in post-conflict truth and reconciliation. Media, War & Conflict, 4(3), 231-249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635211420628 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635211420628
Butts, C. T. (2008). Social network analysis: A methodological introduction. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 11(1), 13-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2007.00241.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2007.00241.x
Chaudhry, S., & Ali, S. (2012). Public Perception about Policies and Practices of ISPR on War on Terror with Special Reference to Military Action in Tribal Areas of Pakistan. Dialogue, 7(2), 103-137.
Cheng, Y., & Chan, C.-M. (2015). The third level of agenda-setting in contemporary China: Tracking descriptions of moral and national education (MNE) in media coverage and people’s minds. International Journal of Communication, 9, 1090-1107.
Christian, R., Stefan, S., & Muhammad, I. (2020) Social media in conflicts and crises. Behaviour & Information Technology, 39(3), 241-251, https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2019.1629025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2019.1629025
Daud, B. (2020). Perception of Afghanistan in the Western Media. Available at http://dspace.jgu.e du.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10739/3705/1/Perception%20of%20Afghanistan%20in%20the%20Western%20Media.pdf
De Nooy, W., Mrvar, A., & Batagelj, V. (2011). Exploratory social network analysis with Pajek (2nd ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511996368 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511996368
Datsko, Oleh-Semen. (2020). The Language of War: Framing Enemy Images in Russian Online Media. Helsingin yliopisto Publishers. Available at http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:hulib-202006223286
Dawn (2021). Backdoor Channels with PDM. An article published in Daily Dawn. Available at https://www.dawn.com/news/1606205
Graber, D. A., & Smith, J. M. (2005). Political communication faces the 21st century. Journal of communication, 55(3), 479-507. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02682.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02682.x
Guo, L. (2012). The application of social network analysis in agenda-setting research: A methodological exploration. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 56(4), 616-631. https://doi.org/10.1080/0883 8151.2012.732148 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2012.732148
Guo, L., Vu, H. T., & McCombs, M. (2012). An expanded perspective on agenda-setting effects: Exploring the third level of agenda-setting. Revista de Comunicación, 11, 51-68.
Hadyniak, K. (2015). How Journalism Influenced American Public Opinion During the Vietnam War: A Case Study of the Battle of Ap Bac, The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, The Tet Offensive, and the My Lai Massacre. Honors College. 222. Available at https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/honors/222
Happer, C., & Philo, G. (2013). The role of the media in the construction of public belief and social change. Journal of social and political psychology, 1(1), 321-336. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v1i1.96 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v1i1.96
Heim, K. (2010). The boys on the blogs: Intermedia agenda-setting in the 2008 US presidential campaign. (Doctoral Thesis), University of Missouri--Columbia.
Herf, J. (2006). The Jewish Enemy: Nazi propaganda during world war II and the holocaust. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674038592 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674038592
Hines, L. A., Gribble, R., Wessely, S., Dandeker, C., & Fear, N. T. (2015). Are the armed forces understood and supported by the public? A view from the United Kingdom. Armed Forces & Society, 41(4), 688-713. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X14559975 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X14559975
Hussain, S. (2016). Media coverage of Taliban: is peace journalism the solution? Asia Pacific media educator, 26(1), 31-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/1326365X16640340 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1326365X16640340
Hussain, S., Siraj, S.A., Mahmood, T. (2019). Evaluating war and peace potential of Pakistani news media: Advancing a peace journalism model. Information Development, 37(1),105-121. https://doi.org/10.1177/02 66666919893416 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0266666919893416
Iftikhar, A., & Shafiq, S. (2019). The Portrayal of Pak-US Relations in Print Media: An Analysis of War on Terror and Militancy in Pakistan during the Republican and the Democratic Regimes. Global Regional Review (GRR), 4(3), 10-19. https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2019(IV-III).02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2019(IV-III).02
Ishaq, N., Saleem, N., & Mian, H. A. (2018). Media an agent of Peace or war? A study of The Economist, The Herald and Time during American Armed Operations in Pakistan. Pakistan Vision, 19(1), 76-93.
Javaid, U. (2015). Operation Zarb-e-Azb: A Successful Initiative to Curtail Terrorism. South Asian Studies. 30(2), 43–58. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309556452_Operation_Zarb-e-Azb_A_Successful_Initiative_to_Curtail_Terrorism#fullTextFileContent
Khan, A. (2018). Zarb-e-Azb Operation: Agenda-Setting Role of Newspapers on a National Issue in Pakistan. Journal of Media Studies, 33(2), 41-59. http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/ICS/PDF/03_V_33_2_2018.pdf
Khan, M.K. & Pratt, C.B. (2020). Strategic communications: The Pakistan military’s use of social media against terrorism. Medi. War & Conflict. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635220972127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635220972127
Khan, S., & Akhtar, N. (2016). Operation Zarb-e-Azb: An Analysis of Media Coverage. Strategic Studies, 36(1), 114-127. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/e48501859
Le, S. (2016). The Relationship Between the Media and the Military. (Master's Thesis). Harvard University, Cambridge, US.
Lee, J. H., & Hahn, K. T. (2014). Factors Influencing the Agenda-Setting Effects of Newspapers on Their Subscribers. Media Economy and Culture, 12(1), 192-233.
Manzoor, S., Shahzadi, I., & Bhatti, A. M. (2021). US Media’s Agenda-Setting: Analysis of Editorial Presentations of Pakistan. Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 5(I). https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2021(5-I)23 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2021(5-I)23
Marin, A., & Wellman, B. (2011). Social Network Analysis: An Introduction. In J. Scott & P. J. Carrington (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis (pp. 11-25). London: Sage Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446294413.n2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446294413.n2
McCombes, M., Lopez-Escobar, E., & Llamas, J. P. (2006). Setting the agenda of attributes in the 1996 Spanish general election. Journal of communication, 50(2), 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02842.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02842.x
McCombs, M. (2005). A look at agenda-setting: Past, present, and future. Journalism Studies, 6(4), 543-557. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616700500250438 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616700500250438
McQuail, D. (2010). McQuail's Mass Communication Theory. Washington: DC: Sage publications.
Nišić, V., & Plavšić, D. (2017). The role of media in the construction of social reality. Sociological Discourse, 4(7), 73-81. https://doi.org/10.7251/SOCEN1407073N DOI: https://doi.org/10.7251/SOCEN1407073N
Oram, S. S. (1993). Telling the Story: Impact of Military-Media Relations on the Operational Commander: Naval War Coll Newport RI Dept of Operations. https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA264285 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA264285
Parrott, S., Albright, D. L., Dyche, C., & Steele, H. G. (2018). Hero, Charity Case, and Victim: How US News Media Frame Military Veterans on Twitter. Armed Forces & Society, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095 327X18784238
Payne, K. (2005). The Media as an Instrument of War. The US Army War College Quarterly: Parameters 35,
(1), 81-93. Available at https://press.armywarcollege.edu/parameters/vol35/iss1/10
Powell, L. (2014). Glorification of the Military in Popular Culture and the Media. In M. C. Forte (Ed.), Good Intentions: Norms and Practices of Imperial Humanitarianism, 4, 167-184. Canada: Alert Press.
Prager, A., & Hameleers, M. (2021). Disseminating information or advocating peace? Journalists’ role perceptions in the face of conflict. Journalism, 22(2), 395–413. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918791788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918791788
Rahman, B. H., & Eijaz, A. (2014). Pakistani Media as an Agent of Conflict or Conflict Resolution: A Case of Lal Masjid in Urdu and English Dailies. Pakistan Vision, 15(2), 238.
Ramić, A. (2015). What media wants from a relationship with the Military? Polemos: Äasopis za interdisciplinarna istraživanja rata i mira, 18(35), 75-89.
Raza, M.R.; Siraj, S.A.; Saeed, U. M. (2020). Image of India and Pakistan in Digital Age: A Comparative Study on Tweets of International News Agencies. International Journal of Distance Education and E-Learning (IJDEEL), VI(I).
Rill, L. A., & Davis, C. B. (2008). Testing the second level of agenda-setting: Effects of news frames on reader-assigned attributes of Hezbollah and Israel in the 2006 war in Lebanon. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(3), 609-624. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900808500308 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900808500308
Scholtz, L. (1998). The media and the military: Allies or adversaries? Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies, 28(2), 236-251. https://doi.org/10.5787/28-2-213 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5787/28-2-213
Seltzer, T., & Dittmore, S. W. (2009). Down, set, frame: second-level agenda building and the NFL network carriage dispute. International Journal of Sport Communication, 2(3), 340-359. https://doi.org/10. 1123/ijsc.2.3.340 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2.3.340
Sheafer, T., & Weimann, G. (2005). Agenda building, agenda-setting, priming, individual voting intentions, and the aggregate results: An analysis of four Israeli elections. Journal of communication, 55(2), 347-365. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02676.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02676.x
Stern, SO, Tuckett D, Smith RE, Nyman R (2018). Measuring the Influencers in the News Media’s Narratives In 2018 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis And Mining (ASONAM), 698-701. https://doi.org/10.1109/ASONAM.2018.8508540 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ASONAM.2018.8508540
Tsfati, Y., & Cohen, J. (2012). Perceptions of media and media effects: The third-person effect, trust in media and hostile media perceptions. In A. N. Valdivia & E. Scharrer (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of media studies. New Jersey, US: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444361506.wbiems995 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444361506.wbiems995
United Nations (2020). A New Era of Conflict and Violence. Available at https://www.un.org/en/un75/new-era-conflict-and-violence.
Vargo, C. J., Guo, L., McCombs, M., & Shaw, D. L. (2014). Network issue agendas on Twitter during the 2012 US presidential election. Journal of communication, 64(2), 296-316. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12089
Vliegenthart, R., & Walgrave, S. (2008). The contingency of intermedia agenda-setting: A longitudinal study in Belgium. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(4), 860-877. https://doi.org/10.1177/10 7769900808500409 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900808500409
Vu, H. T., Guo, L., & McCombs, M. E. (2014). Exploring “the world outside and the pictures in our heads†A network agenda-setting study. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 91(4), 669-686. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699014550090 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699014550090
Walgrave, S., Soroka, S., & Nuytemans, M. (2008). The mass media's political agenda-setting power: A longitudinal analysis of media, parliament, and government in Belgium (1993 to 2000). Comparative Political Studies, 41(6), 814-836. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006299098 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006299098
Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis: Methods and applications. London: Cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815478 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815478
Wirth, W., Matthes, J., Schemer, C., Wettstein, M., Friemel, T., Hänggli, R., & Siegert, G. (2010). Agenda building and setting in a referendum campaign: Investigating the flow of arguments among campaigners, the media, and the public. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 87(2), 328-345. https://doi.org/10 .1177/107769901008700207 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107769901008700207
Yang, J. (2008). US, Chinese newspapers frame the Iraq war differently. Newspaper Research Journal, 29(3), 80-93. https://doi.org/10.1177/073953290802900307 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/073953290802900307
Yousaf, S. (2015). Representation of Pakistan: A Framing Analysis of the Coverage in the US and Chinese News Media Surrounding Operation Zarb-e-Azb. International Journal of Communication, 9, 3042-3064.
Yousaf, Z., Elahi, H., & Adnan, M. (2018). War and Peace Framing: The Contextual Analysis of Indo-Pak Relations. Strategic Studies, 38(1), 128-144. Available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/48539127
Zhang, C., & Meadows III, C. W. (2012). International coverage, foreign policy, and national image: Exploring the complexities of media coverage, public opinion, and presidential agenda. International Journal of Communication, 6, 76-95.