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AUDIENCE CULTURE IN THE RECEPTION OF TEXT: BLACK CAMPAIGNS ON ONLINE MEDIA DURING INDONESIA'S 2014 AND 2019 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 7 No. 1 (2019): January
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study seeks to explore the influence of culture on audiences' responses to online negative campaigns during Indonesia's 2014 and 2019 presidential elections. It shows that voter behavior is not determined entirely by media messages, as voters' decisions are strongly informed by their cultural and family backgrounds.
Methodology: Negative campaign messages conveyed through online mass-media coverage were used as the main object of this study. These messages were analyzed categorically, with a focus on their themes, values, and ideologies. Data inference was made contextually, with a specific focus on cultural context.
Main Findings: Mass media audiences' reception of negative campaigns is not homogenous, but influenced by political ideologies, social statuses, cultures, past experiences, and family characteristics. As such, negative campaigns do not influence the perceptions of mass media audiences, but rather reinforces audiences' existing political preferences. This is because Indonesian audiences are not individual (as common among new media audiences), but rather collective. They are divided into specific groups based on their political ideologies and the socio-cultural values that they learn from their families.
Applications of this study: The findings can be applied to evaluate the media's effectiveness in constructing public knowledge and shaping public decisions.
Novelty/Originality of this study: Although it has long been argued that the media can shape public opinions and decisions, this study shows that it plays a significant role in reinforcing existing political preferences. Audiences use the media to justify values that, owing to their specific family backgrounds and social environments, they have already embraced.
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- Abiocca, F. (2016) ‘Opposing Conceptions of the Audience: The Active and Passive Hemispheres of Mass Communication Theory’, Annals of the International Communication Association. doi: 10.1080/23808985.1988.11678679. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1988.11678679
- Allcott, H. and Gentzkow, M. (2017) ‘Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election’, Journal of Economic Perspectives. doi: 10.1257/jep.31.2.211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3386/w23089
- Amazeen, M. A., Vargo, C. J. and Hopp, T. (2019) ‘Reinforcing attitudes in a gatewatching news era: Individual-level antecedents to sharing fact-checks on social media’, Communication Monographs. doi: 10.1080/03637751.2018.1521984. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2018.1521984
- Ang, I. (2013) Watching Dallas: Soap opera and the melodramatic imagination, Watching Dallas: Soap Opera and the Melodramatic Imagination. doi: 10.4324/9781315002477. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315002477
- Arzheimer, K., Evans, J. and Lewis-Beck, M. (2017) The SAGE Handbook of Electoral Behaviour: Volume 2, The SAGE Handbook of Electoral Behaviour: Volume 2. doi: 10.4135/9781473957978. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473957978
- Asante, M. K. (2007) ‘Barack Obama and the Dilemma of Power’, Journal of Black Studies. doi: 10.1177/0021934707304957. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934707304957
- Baker, C. (2008) Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice. London: Sage Publications.
- Bal, A. S. et al. (2015) ‘Engaging Students With Social Media’, Journal of Marketing Education. doi: 10.1177/0273475315593380. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475315593380
- Brunsdon, C. (2014) The Nationwide Television Studies, The Nationwide Television Studies. doi: 10.4324/9780203983362. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203983362
- Candon, P. (2012) ‘A triumph of rhetoric over practice? the “online public sphere†and political discourse in Ireland’s general election 2011’, Irish Studies in International Affairs. doi: 10.3318/ISIA.2012.23.59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3318/ISIA.2012.23.59
- D’Alessio, D. and Allen, M. (2000) ‘Media bias in presidential elections: A meta-analysis’, Journal of Communication. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02866.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02866.x
- Dahlian, P., Abdullah, I. and Wahyono, S. B. (2017) ‘Yogyakarta netizen community response to the black campaign : the 2014 presidential election in Indonesia’, 1(1), pp. 19–34.
- Enli, G. (2017) ‘Twitter as arena for the authentic outsider: exploring the social media campaigns of Trump and Clinton in the 2016 US presidential election’, European Journal of Communication. doi: 10.1177/0267323116682802. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323116682802
- Freelon, D. (2017) ‘Campaigns in control: Analyzing controlled interactivity and message discipline on Facebook’, Journal of Information Technology and Politics. doi: 10.1080/19331681.2017.1309309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2017.1309309
- Gaffar, A. (1999) Politik Islam: Transisi menuju demokrasi. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
- Gainous, J., Wagner, K. and Gray, T. (2016) ‘Internet freedom and social media effects: Democracy and citizen attitudes in Latin America’, Online Information Review. doi: 10.1108/OIR-11-2015-0351. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-11-2015-0351
- Hall, S. (1981) ‘Culture, media and language’, in. London: Hutchinson, p. 128.
- Hall, S. (2003) ‘Encoding/decoding’, in Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972-79. doi: 10.4324/9780203381182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203381182
- Hill, D. T. (2011) Pers di masa orde baru. Jakarta: Pustaka Yayasan Obor Indonesia.
- Hopp, T. and Vargo, C. J. (2017) ‘Does negative campaign advertising stimulate uncivil communication on social media? Measuring audience response using big data’, Computers in Human Behavior. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.034. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.034
- Jankowski, N. W. (2010) A Handbook of Qualitative Methodologies for Mass Communication Research, A Handbook of Qualitative Methodologies for Mass Communication Research. doi: 10.4324/9780203409800. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203409800
- Kim, S. (2004) ‘Rereading David Morley’s the “Nationwide†Audience’, Cultural Studies. doi: 10.1080/0950238042000181629. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0950238042000181629
- Kwak, H. (2012) ‘Self-disclosure in online media: An active audience perspective’, International Journal of Advertising. doi: 10.2501/IJA-31-3-485-510. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2501/IJA-31-3-485-510
- Larsson, A. O. (2016) ‘Online, all the time? A quantitative assessment of the permanent campaign on Facebook’, New Media and Society. doi: 10.1177/1461444814538798. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814538798
- Larsson, A. O. and Moe, H. (2012) ‘Studying political microblogging: Twitter users in the 2010 Swedish election campaign’, New Media and Society. doi: 10.1177/1461444811422894. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444811422894
- Lilleker, D. G. and Jackson, N. A. (2013) Political Campaigning, Elections and the Internet | Lilleker / Jackson | Buch | beck-shop.de, Political Campaigning, Elections and the Internet: Comparing the US, UK, France and Germany. doi: 10.4324/9780203829431. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203829431
- Lin, X., Spence, P. R. and Lachlan, K. A. (2016) ‘Social media and credibility indicators: The effect of influence cues’, Computers in Human Behavior. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.002
- Lowndes, J. (2013) ‘Barack Obama’s Body: The Presidency, the Body Politic, and the Contest over American National Identity’, Polity. doi: 10.1057/pol.2013.22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/pol.2013.22
- Mihailidis, P. and Viotty, S. (2017) ‘Spreadable Spectacle in Digital Culture: Civic Expression, Fake News, and the Role of Media Literacies in “Post-Fact†Society’, American Behavioral Scientist. doi: 10.1177/0002764217701217. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764217701217
- Morley, D. (2003) Television, audiences and cultural studies, Television, Audiences and Cultural Studies. doi: 10.4324/9780203398357. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203398357
- Norris, P. and Curtice, J. (2008) ‘Getting the message out: A two-step model of the role of the internet in campaign communication flows during the 2005 British general election’, Journal of Information Technology and Politics. doi: 10.1080/19331680801975359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19331680801975359
- Persadha, P., Abdullah, I. and Wahyono, S. B. (2017) ‘Yogyakarta netizen community response to the black campaign: The 2014 presidential election in Indonesia’, Asian Journal of Media and Communication. doi: 10.20885/asjmc.vol1.iss1.art2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20885/asjmc.vol1.iss1.art2
- Sari, I. P. (2018) ‘Keberpihakan media dalam pemilihan presiden 2014’, Journal Penelitian Komunikasi, 21(1), pp. 78–86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20422/jpk.v21i1.488
- Stanyer, J. (2006) ‘Online campaign communication and the phenomenon of blogging: An analysis of Web logs during the 2005 British general election campaign’, Aslib Proceedings: New Information Perspectives. doi: 10.1108/00012530610692357. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00012530610692357
- Stromer-Galley, J. (2014) Presidential compaigning in the age of internet. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199731930.001.0001
- Vaccari, C. and Valeriani, A. (2016) ‘Party Campaigners or Citizen Campaigners? How Social Media Deepen and Broaden Party-Related Engagement’, International Journal of Press/Politics. doi: 10.1177/1940161216642152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161216642152
- Wright, S. (2012) ‘Politics as usual? Revolution, normalization and a new agenda for online deliberation’, New Media and Society. doi: 10.1177/1461444811410679. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444811410679
- Zittel, T. (2009) ‘Constituency Communication on the WWW in Comparative Perspective Changing Media or Changing Democracy’, Joint Sessions of Workshops do ECPR
References
Abiocca, F. (2016) ‘Opposing Conceptions of the Audience: The Active and Passive Hemispheres of Mass Communication Theory’, Annals of the International Communication Association. doi: 10.1080/23808985.1988.11678679. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1988.11678679
Allcott, H. and Gentzkow, M. (2017) ‘Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election’, Journal of Economic Perspectives. doi: 10.1257/jep.31.2.211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3386/w23089
Amazeen, M. A., Vargo, C. J. and Hopp, T. (2019) ‘Reinforcing attitudes in a gatewatching news era: Individual-level antecedents to sharing fact-checks on social media’, Communication Monographs. doi: 10.1080/03637751.2018.1521984. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2018.1521984
Ang, I. (2013) Watching Dallas: Soap opera and the melodramatic imagination, Watching Dallas: Soap Opera and the Melodramatic Imagination. doi: 10.4324/9781315002477. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315002477
Arzheimer, K., Evans, J. and Lewis-Beck, M. (2017) The SAGE Handbook of Electoral Behaviour: Volume 2, The SAGE Handbook of Electoral Behaviour: Volume 2. doi: 10.4135/9781473957978. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473957978
Asante, M. K. (2007) ‘Barack Obama and the Dilemma of Power’, Journal of Black Studies. doi: 10.1177/0021934707304957. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934707304957
Baker, C. (2008) Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice. London: Sage Publications.
Bal, A. S. et al. (2015) ‘Engaging Students With Social Media’, Journal of Marketing Education. doi: 10.1177/0273475315593380. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475315593380
Brunsdon, C. (2014) The Nationwide Television Studies, The Nationwide Television Studies. doi: 10.4324/9780203983362. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203983362
Candon, P. (2012) ‘A triumph of rhetoric over practice? the “online public sphere†and political discourse in Ireland’s general election 2011’, Irish Studies in International Affairs. doi: 10.3318/ISIA.2012.23.59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3318/ISIA.2012.23.59
D’Alessio, D. and Allen, M. (2000) ‘Media bias in presidential elections: A meta-analysis’, Journal of Communication. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02866.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02866.x
Dahlian, P., Abdullah, I. and Wahyono, S. B. (2017) ‘Yogyakarta netizen community response to the black campaign : the 2014 presidential election in Indonesia’, 1(1), pp. 19–34.
Enli, G. (2017) ‘Twitter as arena for the authentic outsider: exploring the social media campaigns of Trump and Clinton in the 2016 US presidential election’, European Journal of Communication. doi: 10.1177/0267323116682802. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323116682802
Freelon, D. (2017) ‘Campaigns in control: Analyzing controlled interactivity and message discipline on Facebook’, Journal of Information Technology and Politics. doi: 10.1080/19331681.2017.1309309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2017.1309309
Gaffar, A. (1999) Politik Islam: Transisi menuju demokrasi. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Gainous, J., Wagner, K. and Gray, T. (2016) ‘Internet freedom and social media effects: Democracy and citizen attitudes in Latin America’, Online Information Review. doi: 10.1108/OIR-11-2015-0351. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-11-2015-0351
Hall, S. (1981) ‘Culture, media and language’, in. London: Hutchinson, p. 128.
Hall, S. (2003) ‘Encoding/decoding’, in Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972-79. doi: 10.4324/9780203381182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203381182
Hill, D. T. (2011) Pers di masa orde baru. Jakarta: Pustaka Yayasan Obor Indonesia.
Hopp, T. and Vargo, C. J. (2017) ‘Does negative campaign advertising stimulate uncivil communication on social media? Measuring audience response using big data’, Computers in Human Behavior. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.034. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.034
Jankowski, N. W. (2010) A Handbook of Qualitative Methodologies for Mass Communication Research, A Handbook of Qualitative Methodologies for Mass Communication Research. doi: 10.4324/9780203409800. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203409800
Kim, S. (2004) ‘Rereading David Morley’s the “Nationwide†Audience’, Cultural Studies. doi: 10.1080/0950238042000181629. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0950238042000181629
Kwak, H. (2012) ‘Self-disclosure in online media: An active audience perspective’, International Journal of Advertising. doi: 10.2501/IJA-31-3-485-510. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2501/IJA-31-3-485-510
Larsson, A. O. (2016) ‘Online, all the time? A quantitative assessment of the permanent campaign on Facebook’, New Media and Society. doi: 10.1177/1461444814538798. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814538798
Larsson, A. O. and Moe, H. (2012) ‘Studying political microblogging: Twitter users in the 2010 Swedish election campaign’, New Media and Society. doi: 10.1177/1461444811422894. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444811422894
Lilleker, D. G. and Jackson, N. A. (2013) Political Campaigning, Elections and the Internet | Lilleker / Jackson | Buch | beck-shop.de, Political Campaigning, Elections and the Internet: Comparing the US, UK, France and Germany. doi: 10.4324/9780203829431. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203829431
Lin, X., Spence, P. R. and Lachlan, K. A. (2016) ‘Social media and credibility indicators: The effect of influence cues’, Computers in Human Behavior. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.002
Lowndes, J. (2013) ‘Barack Obama’s Body: The Presidency, the Body Politic, and the Contest over American National Identity’, Polity. doi: 10.1057/pol.2013.22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/pol.2013.22
Mihailidis, P. and Viotty, S. (2017) ‘Spreadable Spectacle in Digital Culture: Civic Expression, Fake News, and the Role of Media Literacies in “Post-Fact†Society’, American Behavioral Scientist. doi: 10.1177/0002764217701217. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764217701217
Morley, D. (2003) Television, audiences and cultural studies, Television, Audiences and Cultural Studies. doi: 10.4324/9780203398357. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203398357
Norris, P. and Curtice, J. (2008) ‘Getting the message out: A two-step model of the role of the internet in campaign communication flows during the 2005 British general election’, Journal of Information Technology and Politics. doi: 10.1080/19331680801975359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19331680801975359
Persadha, P., Abdullah, I. and Wahyono, S. B. (2017) ‘Yogyakarta netizen community response to the black campaign: The 2014 presidential election in Indonesia’, Asian Journal of Media and Communication. doi: 10.20885/asjmc.vol1.iss1.art2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20885/asjmc.vol1.iss1.art2
Sari, I. P. (2018) ‘Keberpihakan media dalam pemilihan presiden 2014’, Journal Penelitian Komunikasi, 21(1), pp. 78–86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20422/jpk.v21i1.488
Stanyer, J. (2006) ‘Online campaign communication and the phenomenon of blogging: An analysis of Web logs during the 2005 British general election campaign’, Aslib Proceedings: New Information Perspectives. doi: 10.1108/00012530610692357. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/00012530610692357
Stromer-Galley, J. (2014) Presidential compaigning in the age of internet. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199731930.001.0001
Vaccari, C. and Valeriani, A. (2016) ‘Party Campaigners or Citizen Campaigners? How Social Media Deepen and Broaden Party-Related Engagement’, International Journal of Press/Politics. doi: 10.1177/1940161216642152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161216642152
Wright, S. (2012) ‘Politics as usual? Revolution, normalization and a new agenda for online deliberation’, New Media and Society. doi: 10.1177/1461444811410679. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444811410679
Zittel, T. (2009) ‘Constituency Communication on the WWW in Comparative Perspective Changing Media or Changing Democracy’, Joint Sessions of Workshops do ECPR