Issue
Authors retain the copyright without restrictions for their published content in this journal. HSSR is a SHERPA ROMEO Green Journal.
Publishing License
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of
THE EFFECT OF TRAUMATIC EVENTS ON SOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Corresponding Author(s) : Najma Iqbal Malik
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: The present study aims at measuring the effect of traumatic events on social behavior among university students.
Methodology: Purposive sample of n=200 students was selected from various universities of Punjab, Pakistan. Impact of events scale-revised (Weiss, 2007), and Texas social behavior inventory (Helmreich & Stapp, 1974) were used to measure study variables. Pearson correlation was carried out to explore correlations. Further, the prediction was checked through regression analysis. Additional analysis includes a t-test to check gender differences.
Main Findings: Significant differences were found in adolescents as compared to young adults on the scale of the traumatic events. Correlation analysis indicated a significant negative relationship between traumatic events (intrusion, avoidance, and hyper-arousal) and social behavior (i.e., self-esteem). Further multiple regression analysis showed that traumatic events were a significant negative predictor of social behavior as traumatic events harm an individual’s social behavior. Additionally, the t-test indicated non-significant gender differences.
Applications of this study: These research results have implications in academic settings, clinical and counseling. And it helps to improve overall social behavior at the individual level, which ultimately serves to ensure a better community and sound environment.
Originality/Uniqueness of present investigation: An empirical investigation of the phenomenon observed among human participants' natural behavior with no manipulation.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Ahmed, W., Ahmad, A., & Bhatti, M. B. (2020). Bonding, Academic Culture, and Aggressive Behavior among University Students in Pakistan. Global Regional Review, V(I), 8-14. https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).02
- American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
- Amin, R., Nadeem, E., Iqbal, K., Asadullah, M. A., & Hussain, B. (2020). Support for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET) Program: An Approach for Building Resilience and Social Support Among Flood-Impacted Children. School Mental Health, 12(3), 493-506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-020-09373-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-020-09373-y
- Amir, M., & Sol, O. (1999). Psychological impact and prevalence of traumatic events in a student sample in Israel: The effect of multiple traumatic events and physical injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 12(1), 139-154. https://doi.org/10.1023 /A:1024754618063 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024754618063
- Becker-Blease, K. A., Turner, H. A., & Finkelhor, D. (2010). Disasters, victimization, and children’s mental health. Child Development, 81(4), 1040–1052. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01453.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01453.x
- Behavioural Health Conditions in Children and Youth Exposed to Natural Disasters (2018). SAMHSA Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin. 1-20.
- Bernat, J. A., Ronfeldt, H. M., Calhoun, K. S., & Arias, I. (1998). Prevalence of traumatic events and peritraumatic predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms in a non-clinical sample of college students. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 645–664. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024485130934 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024485130934
- Bibi, A., Blackwell, S. E., & Margraf, J. (2019). Mental health, suicidal ideation, and experience of bullying among university students in Pakistan. Journal of Health Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/1 359105319869819 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105319869819
- Bibi, A., Lin, M., & Margraf, J. (2020). Salutogenic constructs across Pakistan and Germany: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 20(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ij chp.2019.10.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2019.10.001
- Bohannon, L., Clapsaddle, S., & McCollum, D. (2019). Responding to College students who exhibit adverse manifestations of stress and trauma in the college classroom. In FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.32865/fire201952164 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32865/fire201952164
- Danielson, C. K., Cohen, J. R., Adams, Z. W., Youngstrom, E. A., Soltis, K., Amstadter, A. B., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2017). Clinical decision-making following disasters: Efficient identification of PTSD risk in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(1), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0159-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0159-3
- Espelage, D., Anderman, E. M., Brown, V. E., Jones, A., Lane, K. L., McMahon, S. D. & Reynolds, C. R. (2011). Understanding and preventing violence directed against teachers. American Psychological Association, 68(2), 75-87. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031307 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031307
- Frazier, P., Anders, S., Perera, S., Tomich, P., Tennen, H., Park, C., & Tashiro, T. (2009). Traumatic events among undergraduate students: Prevalence and associated symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(3), 450. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016412 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016412
- Galea, S., Brewin, C.R., Gruber, M., et al. (2007). Exposure to hurricane-related stressors and mental illness after Hurricane Katrina. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1427-1434. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64 .12.1427 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.12.1427
- Galea, S., Resnick, H., Ahern, J., Gold, J., Bucuvalas, M., Kilpatrick, D., Stuber, J, Vlahov, D. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder in Manhattan, New York City, after the September 11th terrorist attacks. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 79(3), 340-53. https://doi.org/1 0.1093/jurban/79.3.340 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/79.3.340
- Ginwright, S. (2018). The future of healing: Shifting from trauma-informed care to healing centred engagement. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@ginwright/the-future-of-healing-shifting-from-trauma-informed-care-to-healing-centered-engagement-634f557ce69c
- Ginwright, S. (2021). The Future of Healing: Shifting From Trauma-Informed Care to Healing-Centered Engagement. Retrieved from: https://youthrex.com/blog/the-future-of-healing-shifting-from-trauma-informed-care-to-healing-centered-engagement/
- Green, B. L., Goodman, L. A., Krupnick, J. L., Corcoran, C. B., Petty, R. M., Stockton, P., & Stern, N. M. (2000). Outcomes of single versus multiple trauma exposure in a screening sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007758711939 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007758711939
- Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1974). Short forms of the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (TSBI), an objective measure of self-esteem. Bull. Psychon. Soc. 4, 473–475. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03334260 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03334260
- Hoover, S. A., Sapere, H., Lang, J. M., Nadeem, E., Dean, K. L., & Vona, P. (2018). Statewide implementation of an evidence-based trauma intervention in schools. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000248 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000248
- Kanwal, H., & Jami, H. (2019). Exploring Modes, Strategies, and Psychosocial Consequences of Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization Among University Students. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 787-817. https://doi.org/10.33824/PJPR.2019.34.4.43 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33824/PJPR.2019.34.4.43
- Kerai, S. M., Khan, U. R., Islam, M., Asad, N., Razzak, J., & Pasha, O. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder and its predictors in emergency medical service personnel: a cross-sectional study from Karachi, Pakistan. BMC Emergency Medicine, 17(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-017-0140-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-017-0140-7
- Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Bromet, E. J., Cardoso, G. & Koenen, K. C. (2017). Trauma and PTSD in the WHO world mental health surveys. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(sup5), 1353383. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383
- Malik, O. F., Schat, A. C. H., Raziq, M. M., Shahzad, A., & Khan, M. (2018). Relationships between perceived risk of terrorism, fear, and avoidance behaviors among Pakistani university students: A multigroup study. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.044
- Muldoon, O. T., Haslam, S. A., Haslam, C., Cruwys, T., Kearns, M., & Jetten, J. (2019). The social psychology of responses to trauma: Social identity pathways associated with divergent traumatic responses. European Review of Social Psychology, 30(1), 311-348. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2020.1711628 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2020.1711628
- Oehlberg, B. (2008). Why Schools Need to Be Trauma Informed. Trauma and Loss: Research and Interventions, 8(2), 1-4.
- Owens, G. P., & Chard, K. M. (2006). PTSD severity and cognitive reactions to trauma among a college sample: An exploratory study. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 13, 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v13n02_02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v13n02_02
- Perfect, M. M., Turley, M. R., Carlson, J. S., Yohanna, J., & Saint Gilles, M. P. (2016). School-related outcomes of traumatic event exposure and traumatic stress symptoms in students: A systematic review of research from 1990 to 2015. School Mental Health: A Multidisciplinary Research and Practice Journal, 8(1), 7–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2
- Santiago, C. D., Raviv, T., Ros, A. M., Brewer, S. K., Distel, L. M., Torres, S. A., ... & Langley, A. K. (2018). Implementing the Bounce Back trauma intervention in urban elementary schools: A real-world replication trial. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000229 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000229
- Scarpa, A., Fikretoglu, D., Bowser, F., Hurley, J. D., Pappert, C. A., Romero, N., & Van Voorhees, E. (2002). Community violence exposure in university students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 253–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502017003002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502017003002
- Shah, S. F. A., Jan, F., Ginossar, T., McGrail, J. P., Baber, D., & Ullah, R. (2020). Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder among regional journalists in Pakistan. Journalism, 1464884920965783. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920965783 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920965783
- Souers, K. (2018). Responding with care to students facing trauma. Educational Leadership, 75(4), 32-36.
- Thomas, M. S., Crosby, S., & Vanderhaar, J. (2019). Trauma-informed practices in schools across two decades: An interdisciplinary review of research. Review of Research in Education, 43(1), 422-452. https://doi.org/10.3 102/0091732X18821123 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821123
- Thompson, T. (2014). Personal and Vicarious Embarrassability. Journal of Individual Differences, 35(1) 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000122 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000122
- Vrana, S., & Lauterbach, D. (1994). Prevalence of traumatic events and post-traumatic psychological symptoms in a non-clinical sample of college students. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7, 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1002/jt s.2490070209 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490070209
- Waldman, C. (2019). Podcast: The Impact of Trauma on Student Learning. Retrieved from: https://all4ed.org/podcast-the-impact-of-trauma-on-student-learning/
- Watson, S. B., & Haynes, S. N. (2007). Brief screening for traumatic life events in female undergraduate health service patients. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 7, 261–282.
- Weiss, D. S. (2007). The Impact of Event Scale: Revised. In J. P. Wilson & C. S.-k. Tang (Eds.), International and cultural psychology. Cross-cultural assessment of psychological trauma and PTSD (p. 219–238). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-70990-1_10 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-70990-1_10
References
Ahmed, W., Ahmad, A., & Bhatti, M. B. (2020). Bonding, Academic Culture, and Aggressive Behavior among University Students in Pakistan. Global Regional Review, V(I), 8-14. https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).02
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
Amin, R., Nadeem, E., Iqbal, K., Asadullah, M. A., & Hussain, B. (2020). Support for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET) Program: An Approach for Building Resilience and Social Support Among Flood-Impacted Children. School Mental Health, 12(3), 493-506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-020-09373-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-020-09373-y
Amir, M., & Sol, O. (1999). Psychological impact and prevalence of traumatic events in a student sample in Israel: The effect of multiple traumatic events and physical injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 12(1), 139-154. https://doi.org/10.1023 /A:1024754618063 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024754618063
Becker-Blease, K. A., Turner, H. A., & Finkelhor, D. (2010). Disasters, victimization, and children’s mental health. Child Development, 81(4), 1040–1052. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01453.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01453.x
Behavioural Health Conditions in Children and Youth Exposed to Natural Disasters (2018). SAMHSA Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin. 1-20.
Bernat, J. A., Ronfeldt, H. M., Calhoun, K. S., & Arias, I. (1998). Prevalence of traumatic events and peritraumatic predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms in a non-clinical sample of college students. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 645–664. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024485130934 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024485130934
Bibi, A., Blackwell, S. E., & Margraf, J. (2019). Mental health, suicidal ideation, and experience of bullying among university students in Pakistan. Journal of Health Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/1 359105319869819 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105319869819
Bibi, A., Lin, M., & Margraf, J. (2020). Salutogenic constructs across Pakistan and Germany: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 20(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ij chp.2019.10.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2019.10.001
Bohannon, L., Clapsaddle, S., & McCollum, D. (2019). Responding to College students who exhibit adverse manifestations of stress and trauma in the college classroom. In FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.32865/fire201952164 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32865/fire201952164
Danielson, C. K., Cohen, J. R., Adams, Z. W., Youngstrom, E. A., Soltis, K., Amstadter, A. B., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2017). Clinical decision-making following disasters: Efficient identification of PTSD risk in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(1), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0159-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0159-3
Espelage, D., Anderman, E. M., Brown, V. E., Jones, A., Lane, K. L., McMahon, S. D. & Reynolds, C. R. (2011). Understanding and preventing violence directed against teachers. American Psychological Association, 68(2), 75-87. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031307 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031307
Frazier, P., Anders, S., Perera, S., Tomich, P., Tennen, H., Park, C., & Tashiro, T. (2009). Traumatic events among undergraduate students: Prevalence and associated symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(3), 450. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016412 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016412
Galea, S., Brewin, C.R., Gruber, M., et al. (2007). Exposure to hurricane-related stressors and mental illness after Hurricane Katrina. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1427-1434. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64 .12.1427 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.12.1427
Galea, S., Resnick, H., Ahern, J., Gold, J., Bucuvalas, M., Kilpatrick, D., Stuber, J, Vlahov, D. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder in Manhattan, New York City, after the September 11th terrorist attacks. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 79(3), 340-53. https://doi.org/1 0.1093/jurban/79.3.340 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/79.3.340
Ginwright, S. (2018). The future of healing: Shifting from trauma-informed care to healing centred engagement. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@ginwright/the-future-of-healing-shifting-from-trauma-informed-care-to-healing-centered-engagement-634f557ce69c
Ginwright, S. (2021). The Future of Healing: Shifting From Trauma-Informed Care to Healing-Centered Engagement. Retrieved from: https://youthrex.com/blog/the-future-of-healing-shifting-from-trauma-informed-care-to-healing-centered-engagement/
Green, B. L., Goodman, L. A., Krupnick, J. L., Corcoran, C. B., Petty, R. M., Stockton, P., & Stern, N. M. (2000). Outcomes of single versus multiple trauma exposure in a screening sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007758711939 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007758711939
Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1974). Short forms of the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (TSBI), an objective measure of self-esteem. Bull. Psychon. Soc. 4, 473–475. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03334260 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03334260
Hoover, S. A., Sapere, H., Lang, J. M., Nadeem, E., Dean, K. L., & Vona, P. (2018). Statewide implementation of an evidence-based trauma intervention in schools. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000248 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000248
Kanwal, H., & Jami, H. (2019). Exploring Modes, Strategies, and Psychosocial Consequences of Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization Among University Students. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 787-817. https://doi.org/10.33824/PJPR.2019.34.4.43 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33824/PJPR.2019.34.4.43
Kerai, S. M., Khan, U. R., Islam, M., Asad, N., Razzak, J., & Pasha, O. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder and its predictors in emergency medical service personnel: a cross-sectional study from Karachi, Pakistan. BMC Emergency Medicine, 17(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-017-0140-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-017-0140-7
Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Bromet, E. J., Cardoso, G. & Koenen, K. C. (2017). Trauma and PTSD in the WHO world mental health surveys. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(sup5), 1353383. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383
Malik, O. F., Schat, A. C. H., Raziq, M. M., Shahzad, A., & Khan, M. (2018). Relationships between perceived risk of terrorism, fear, and avoidance behaviors among Pakistani university students: A multigroup study. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.044
Muldoon, O. T., Haslam, S. A., Haslam, C., Cruwys, T., Kearns, M., & Jetten, J. (2019). The social psychology of responses to trauma: Social identity pathways associated with divergent traumatic responses. European Review of Social Psychology, 30(1), 311-348. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2020.1711628 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2020.1711628
Oehlberg, B. (2008). Why Schools Need to Be Trauma Informed. Trauma and Loss: Research and Interventions, 8(2), 1-4.
Owens, G. P., & Chard, K. M. (2006). PTSD severity and cognitive reactions to trauma among a college sample: An exploratory study. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 13, 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v13n02_02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v13n02_02
Perfect, M. M., Turley, M. R., Carlson, J. S., Yohanna, J., & Saint Gilles, M. P. (2016). School-related outcomes of traumatic event exposure and traumatic stress symptoms in students: A systematic review of research from 1990 to 2015. School Mental Health: A Multidisciplinary Research and Practice Journal, 8(1), 7–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2
Santiago, C. D., Raviv, T., Ros, A. M., Brewer, S. K., Distel, L. M., Torres, S. A., ... & Langley, A. K. (2018). Implementing the Bounce Back trauma intervention in urban elementary schools: A real-world replication trial. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000229 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000229
Scarpa, A., Fikretoglu, D., Bowser, F., Hurley, J. D., Pappert, C. A., Romero, N., & Van Voorhees, E. (2002). Community violence exposure in university students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 253–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502017003002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502017003002
Shah, S. F. A., Jan, F., Ginossar, T., McGrail, J. P., Baber, D., & Ullah, R. (2020). Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder among regional journalists in Pakistan. Journalism, 1464884920965783. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920965783 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920965783
Souers, K. (2018). Responding with care to students facing trauma. Educational Leadership, 75(4), 32-36.
Thomas, M. S., Crosby, S., & Vanderhaar, J. (2019). Trauma-informed practices in schools across two decades: An interdisciplinary review of research. Review of Research in Education, 43(1), 422-452. https://doi.org/10.3 102/0091732X18821123 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821123
Thompson, T. (2014). Personal and Vicarious Embarrassability. Journal of Individual Differences, 35(1) 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000122 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000122
Vrana, S., & Lauterbach, D. (1994). Prevalence of traumatic events and post-traumatic psychological symptoms in a non-clinical sample of college students. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7, 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1002/jt s.2490070209 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490070209
Waldman, C. (2019). Podcast: The Impact of Trauma on Student Learning. Retrieved from: https://all4ed.org/podcast-the-impact-of-trauma-on-student-learning/
Watson, S. B., & Haynes, S. N. (2007). Brief screening for traumatic life events in female undergraduate health service patients. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 7, 261–282.
Weiss, D. S. (2007). The Impact of Event Scale: Revised. In J. P. Wilson & C. S.-k. Tang (Eds.), International and cultural psychology. Cross-cultural assessment of psychological trauma and PTSD (p. 219–238). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-70990-1_10 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-70990-1_10