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AN ANALYSIS OF LEAKAGE AND INJECTION OF HOUSEHOLDS RELATED TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES AND MOBILITY IN SELECTED DISTRICTS OF CENTRAL PUNJAB, PAKISTAN
Corresponding Author(s) : Hafeez ur Rehman
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study deals with leakages and injections of households due to socio-economic opportunities and mobility in Central Punjab, Pakistan. During the past few decades, researchers have been trying to analyze the changes caused by mobility in the socio-economic stratification of society over time.
Methodology: For analysis purposes, the study uses primary data collected from the three selected districts of Central Punjab. The study used Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for calculating the Socio-economic Status Index (SESI) by assigning the weights to indicators. The sample size is taken from 370 respondents by interviews. The sample size has been determined based on the population of each district, such as rural and urban.
Main Findings: The results show that both creeper and struggling strata experience low mobility because households consider their basic needs highly important. The size of both low strata decreases due to leakages of households; while, the size of other strata increases due to the injection of households from low strata. The logistic regression results show the substantial contribution of both education and occupation in improving the socio-economic status of the households.
Applications of this study: This study can provide guidelines to the policymakers for formulating appropriate policies that are relatively flexible for the middle stratum compared to creeper and ruler strata in Central Punjab.
Novelty/Originality of this study: The novelty of the study is that it brings up the true picture of the structure of Central Punjab through estimating the household transformation by using leakage and injection in terms of intra-generational and intra-temporal household mobility. The results of the study can be used to reduce the income inequality in Central Punjab.
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- Baker, J., & Adhikari, P . (2007). Socio-economic indexes for individuals and families. Abs methodology advisory committee, Analytical Services Branch.
- Bechlioulis, A. P., & Brissimis, S. N. (2021). Identifying key aspects of household behavior in a representative agent framework. Economic Modelling, 97, 105-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2021.01.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2021.01.017
- Cepeliauskaite, G., Keppner, B., Simkute, Z., Stasiskiene, Z., Leuser, L., Kalnina, I., ... & Muiste, M. (2021). Smart-Mobility Services for Climate Mitigation in Urban Areas: Case Studies of Baltic Countries and Germany. Sustainability, 13(8), 4127. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13084127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13084127
- Connor, H., & Dewson, S. (2001). Social class and higher education issues affecting decisions on participation by lower social class groups(DFEE Research Report RR267). https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/4621/1/RR267.pdf
- Corak, M. (2013). Income inequality, equality of opportunity, and intergenerational mobility, (Discussion Paper No. 7520). http://ftp.iza.org/dp7520.pdf
- Côté, S., Stellar, J. E., Willer, R., Forbes, R. C., Martin, S. R., & Bianchi, E. C. (2021). The psychology of entrenched privilege: High socioeconomic status individuals from affluent backgrounds are uniquely high in entitlement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 47(1), 70-88. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461 67220916633 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220916633
- Delorenzi, S. (2006). Neighborhood, ethnicity and social mobility. Institute for Public Policy Research, vol-1, 1-11.
- Delorenzi, S., Reed, J., & Robinson, P. (2005). Maintaining momentum: promoting social mobility and life chances from early years to adulthood. Institute for Public Policy Research.
- Dean, H., McNeil, V., & Melrose, M. (2003). ‘Ready to Work? Understanding the experiences of people with multiple problems and needs'. Benefts, 11(36), 19-25.
- Forsyth, A,. & Furlong, A. (2003). Access to higher education and disadvantage, young people. British Educational Research Journal, 29 (2), 205-225. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192032000060948 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192032000060948
- Freud, D. (2007). Reducing dependency, increasing opportunity: options for the future of welfare to work: An independent report to the Department for Work and Pensions. Department for Work and Pensions.
- Gaur, K. L. (2013 ). Socio-Economic status measurement scale: Thirst area with changing concept for socio-economic status. International Journal of Innovative Reserch and Development, 2(9), 139-145.
- Gibbons, S., & Silva, O. (2006). Faith Primary Schools: Better Schools or Better Pupils? Journal of Labor Economics, 29(3), 589-635. https://doi.org/10.1086/659344 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/659344
- Grusky, D. B. (2001). Social stratification: Class, race, and gender in sociological perspective. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo, Westview Press.
- Green, N. E. (1956). Scale analysis of urban structures: A study of Birmingham, Alabama. American Sociological Review, 21(1), 8-13. https://doi.org/10.2307/2089333 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2089333
- Goldthorpe, J. H. (2016). Social class mobility in modern Britain, changing structure, constant process. Journal of the British Academy, 4, 89 –111. https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/004.089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/004.089
- Jantti, M., & Jenkins, S. P. (2013). Income Mobility (Discussion Paper No. 7730). https://www.econstor.eu/b itstream/10419/89975/1/dp7730.pdf
- Jimoh, M. Y., Bikam, P., & Chikoore, H. (2021). The Influence of Socioeconomic Factors on Households’ Vulnerability to Climate Change in Semiarid Towns of Mopani, South Africa. Climate, 9(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli9010013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/cli9010013
- Khalid, S., & Asghar, N. (2018). Measuring Socio economic Stratification and Mobility Pattern: Case study of Intra-Generational and Intra-Temporal Household Mobility of southern Punjab, Pakistan. Review of Economics and Development Studies, 4 (2), 321-329. https://doi.org/10.26710/reads.v4i2.417 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26710/reads.v4i2.417
- Khalid, S., & Asghar, N. (2019). An Analysis of Socio economic Stratification, Intra-Temporal and Intra-Generational Household Mobility in Central Punjab, Pakistan. Global Social Sciences Review (GSSR), 4(11), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2019(IV-II).01 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2019(IV-II).01
- Levesque, A. R., MacDonald, S., Berg, S. A., & Reka, R. (2021). Assessing the Impact of Changes in Household Socioeconomic Status on the Health of Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Adolescent research review, 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-021-00151-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-021-00151-8
- Machin, S. (2004). Educational inequality: The widening socio-economic gap. Fiscal Studies, 25(2), 107–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.2004.tb00099.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.2004.tb00099.x
- Miliband, D. (2003). Opportunity for all: targeting disadvantage through personalized learning’, New Economy, 224-229. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-0041.2003.00322.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-0041.2003.00322.x
- Mpango, P. (2013). Socio-Economic transformation for poverty reduction: Eight key messages for unlocking Tanzania’s Potential. (REPOA Brief Number 37). http://www.repoa.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/REPO A_BRIEF_37.pdf
- Murphy, J. T. (2006). Representing the economic geographies of “others†reconsidering the global south. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 30(3), 439-448. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260600927369 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260600927369
- Masooma, H. (2013). Education in Pakistan's Punjab: Outcomes and interventions. Lahore Journal of Economics, 18. https://doi.org/10.35536/lje.2013.v18.isp.a2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35536/lje.2013.v18.isp.a2
- Nayab, D. (2011). Estimating the middle class in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 50(1), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.30541/v50i1pp.1-28 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30541/v50i1pp.1-28
- Okun, A. M. (2015). Equality and efficiency: The Big Tradeoff. The Brookings Institution.
- Qamar, A. H. (2014). Challenges associated with primary education in rural Punjab, Pakistan: primary education in rural Punjab, Pakistan. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
- Ritchie, H., Casebourne, J., & Rick, J. (2005). Understanding workless people and communities: A literature review( DWP Research Report No. 255).
- Salata, A., & Scalon, C. (2020). Socioeconomic mobility, Expectations and attitudes towards inequality in Brazil. Sociol. Antropol, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1590/2238-38752020v10213 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/2238-38752020v10213
- Silva, N. B. D., & Duarte, A. M. P. (2021). Essential and non-essential goods: a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium modeling of the infectious disease coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. New Challenges for the Eurozone Governance: Joint Solutions for Common Threats? 171-185. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62372-2_9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62372-2_9
- Tiwari, S., & Kumar, A. (2005). A scale to measure socio-economic status in urban & rural communities in India." Indian J . The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 122(4), 288-290.
- Weissberger, G. H., Núñez, R. A., Tureson, K., Gold, A., & Thames, A. D. (2021). Socioeconomic Mobility and Psychological and Cognitive Functioning in a Diverse Sample of Adults With and Without HIV. Psychosomatic medicine, 83(3), 218-227. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000929 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000929
- Wuyts, M., & Kilama, B. (2014). Economic transformation in Tanzania vicious or virtuous circle (Background Paper No. 2 ). https://www.thdr.or.tz/docs/THDR-DP-56.pdf
References
Baker, J., & Adhikari, P . (2007). Socio-economic indexes for individuals and families. Abs methodology advisory committee, Analytical Services Branch.
Bechlioulis, A. P., & Brissimis, S. N. (2021). Identifying key aspects of household behavior in a representative agent framework. Economic Modelling, 97, 105-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2021.01.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2021.01.017
Cepeliauskaite, G., Keppner, B., Simkute, Z., Stasiskiene, Z., Leuser, L., Kalnina, I., ... & Muiste, M. (2021). Smart-Mobility Services for Climate Mitigation in Urban Areas: Case Studies of Baltic Countries and Germany. Sustainability, 13(8), 4127. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13084127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13084127
Connor, H., & Dewson, S. (2001). Social class and higher education issues affecting decisions on participation by lower social class groups(DFEE Research Report RR267). https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/4621/1/RR267.pdf
Corak, M. (2013). Income inequality, equality of opportunity, and intergenerational mobility, (Discussion Paper No. 7520). http://ftp.iza.org/dp7520.pdf
Côté, S., Stellar, J. E., Willer, R., Forbes, R. C., Martin, S. R., & Bianchi, E. C. (2021). The psychology of entrenched privilege: High socioeconomic status individuals from affluent backgrounds are uniquely high in entitlement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 47(1), 70-88. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461 67220916633 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220916633
Delorenzi, S. (2006). Neighborhood, ethnicity and social mobility. Institute for Public Policy Research, vol-1, 1-11.
Delorenzi, S., Reed, J., & Robinson, P. (2005). Maintaining momentum: promoting social mobility and life chances from early years to adulthood. Institute for Public Policy Research.
Dean, H., McNeil, V., & Melrose, M. (2003). ‘Ready to Work? Understanding the experiences of people with multiple problems and needs'. Benefts, 11(36), 19-25.
Forsyth, A,. & Furlong, A. (2003). Access to higher education and disadvantage, young people. British Educational Research Journal, 29 (2), 205-225. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192032000060948 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192032000060948
Freud, D. (2007). Reducing dependency, increasing opportunity: options for the future of welfare to work: An independent report to the Department for Work and Pensions. Department for Work and Pensions.
Gaur, K. L. (2013 ). Socio-Economic status measurement scale: Thirst area with changing concept for socio-economic status. International Journal of Innovative Reserch and Development, 2(9), 139-145.
Gibbons, S., & Silva, O. (2006). Faith Primary Schools: Better Schools or Better Pupils? Journal of Labor Economics, 29(3), 589-635. https://doi.org/10.1086/659344 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/659344
Grusky, D. B. (2001). Social stratification: Class, race, and gender in sociological perspective. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo, Westview Press.
Green, N. E. (1956). Scale analysis of urban structures: A study of Birmingham, Alabama. American Sociological Review, 21(1), 8-13. https://doi.org/10.2307/2089333 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2089333
Goldthorpe, J. H. (2016). Social class mobility in modern Britain, changing structure, constant process. Journal of the British Academy, 4, 89 –111. https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/004.089 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/004.089
Jantti, M., & Jenkins, S. P. (2013). Income Mobility (Discussion Paper No. 7730). https://www.econstor.eu/b itstream/10419/89975/1/dp7730.pdf
Jimoh, M. Y., Bikam, P., & Chikoore, H. (2021). The Influence of Socioeconomic Factors on Households’ Vulnerability to Climate Change in Semiarid Towns of Mopani, South Africa. Climate, 9(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli9010013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/cli9010013
Khalid, S., & Asghar, N. (2018). Measuring Socio economic Stratification and Mobility Pattern: Case study of Intra-Generational and Intra-Temporal Household Mobility of southern Punjab, Pakistan. Review of Economics and Development Studies, 4 (2), 321-329. https://doi.org/10.26710/reads.v4i2.417 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26710/reads.v4i2.417
Khalid, S., & Asghar, N. (2019). An Analysis of Socio economic Stratification, Intra-Temporal and Intra-Generational Household Mobility in Central Punjab, Pakistan. Global Social Sciences Review (GSSR), 4(11), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2019(IV-II).01 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2019(IV-II).01
Levesque, A. R., MacDonald, S., Berg, S. A., & Reka, R. (2021). Assessing the Impact of Changes in Household Socioeconomic Status on the Health of Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Adolescent research review, 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-021-00151-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-021-00151-8
Machin, S. (2004). Educational inequality: The widening socio-economic gap. Fiscal Studies, 25(2), 107–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.2004.tb00099.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.2004.tb00099.x
Miliband, D. (2003). Opportunity for all: targeting disadvantage through personalized learning’, New Economy, 224-229. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-0041.2003.00322.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-0041.2003.00322.x
Mpango, P. (2013). Socio-Economic transformation for poverty reduction: Eight key messages for unlocking Tanzania’s Potential. (REPOA Brief Number 37). http://www.repoa.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/REPO A_BRIEF_37.pdf
Murphy, J. T. (2006). Representing the economic geographies of “others†reconsidering the global south. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 30(3), 439-448. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260600927369 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260600927369
Masooma, H. (2013). Education in Pakistan's Punjab: Outcomes and interventions. Lahore Journal of Economics, 18. https://doi.org/10.35536/lje.2013.v18.isp.a2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35536/lje.2013.v18.isp.a2
Nayab, D. (2011). Estimating the middle class in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 50(1), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.30541/v50i1pp.1-28 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30541/v50i1pp.1-28
Okun, A. M. (2015). Equality and efficiency: The Big Tradeoff. The Brookings Institution.
Qamar, A. H. (2014). Challenges associated with primary education in rural Punjab, Pakistan: primary education in rural Punjab, Pakistan. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
Ritchie, H., Casebourne, J., & Rick, J. (2005). Understanding workless people and communities: A literature review( DWP Research Report No. 255).
Salata, A., & Scalon, C. (2020). Socioeconomic mobility, Expectations and attitudes towards inequality in Brazil. Sociol. Antropol, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1590/2238-38752020v10213 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/2238-38752020v10213
Silva, N. B. D., & Duarte, A. M. P. (2021). Essential and non-essential goods: a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium modeling of the infectious disease coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. New Challenges for the Eurozone Governance: Joint Solutions for Common Threats? 171-185. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62372-2_9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62372-2_9
Tiwari, S., & Kumar, A. (2005). A scale to measure socio-economic status in urban & rural communities in India." Indian J . The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 122(4), 288-290.
Weissberger, G. H., Núñez, R. A., Tureson, K., Gold, A., & Thames, A. D. (2021). Socioeconomic Mobility and Psychological and Cognitive Functioning in a Diverse Sample of Adults With and Without HIV. Psychosomatic medicine, 83(3), 218-227. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000929 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000929
Wuyts, M., & Kilama, B. (2014). Economic transformation in Tanzania vicious or virtuous circle (Background Paper No. 2 ). https://www.thdr.or.tz/docs/THDR-DP-56.pdf