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SOCIAL FACTORS AND PASHTO-ENGLISH CODESWITCHING: THE CASE OF ENGLISH AS EMBEDDED LANGUAGE IN KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA, PAKISTAN
Corresponding Author(s) : Arshad Ali Khan
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021): May
Abstract
Purpose of the Study: The present research investigates the use of English codeswitching about the social factors which influence the use of English in the Pashto language. First, the focus of the study lies on the social factors e.g., style, interlocutors, topic, social distance, social status, and identity, etc., and their influence on English codeswitching in the Pashto language.
Methodology of the study: The data was collected with the help of a questionnaire consist of 13th statements. The data collected were further analyzed with the help of quantitative and qualitative methods employing descriptive analysis, SPSS 15, and the percentage method.
Main Findings: The dominant pattern of codeswitching was insertion with nouns the most frequent codeswitching item. The study indicates that education is the key factor that influences English codeswitching and it also shows that Pashto is the dominant language of communication and is used as a symbol of solidarity and social marker in the Pashto speech community.
Application of the study: The researcher can extend this study of codeswitching to a different contact setting such Pashto-Urdu and Pashto-Punjabi. The density of bilingualism is expected to give different types of codeswitching patterns.
Novelty/Originality of this study: This study is the pioneer study that focused on the effect of social factors on the selection of language in bilingual settings.
Keywords
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- Auer, P. (1984). Bilingual Conversation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pb.v.8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/pb.v.8
- Auer, P. (1988). A Conversation analytic approach to Code-switching and transfer. InHeller, M. (Ed), Code-Switching: Anthropological and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 187-213). Berlin: Moulton de Gruyter.
- Aure, P. (1998). Code-switching in conversation: Language, interaction, and identity. London: Routledge.
- Auer, P. (1995). The pragmatics of code-switching: A sequential approach. In Milroy and Muysken, PP. 15-135. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620867.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620867.006
- Azuma, S. (1997). Lexical categories and code-switching: a study of Japanese/English code-switching in Japan. The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese, 31(2), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.2307/489656 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/489656
- Azuma, S. (1993). The frame-content hypothesis in speech production: evidence from intra-sentential code-switching. Linguistics, 31,107-194. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1993.31.6.1071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1993.31.6.1071
- Backus, A. (1998). Two in One. Bilingual Speech of Turkish Immigrants in the Netherlands. Tiburg: Tiburg University Press.
- Blom, J. P. and Gumperz, J. J. (1972). Social meaning in linguistic structures: Code-switching in Norway. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
- Blom, J. P., & Gumperz, J. J. (2000). Social meaning in linguistic structure: Code-switching in Norway. The bilingualism reader, 111-136.
- Blommaert, J. (1994). Code-switching and the exclusivity of social identities: Some data from Campus Kiswahili. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,13, 57-70. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1992.9994483 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1992.9994483
- Bucholtz, Marry, and Kira Hall. (2005). Identity and Interaction: A Sociocultural Linguistic Approach: Discourse Studies, 7, 4-5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445605054407 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445605054407
- Chomsky, N. (1957). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge MIT Press.
- Ervin-Tripp, S.M. (1964). An Analysis of the interaction of language, topic, and listener. American Anthropologist, 66, 86-102. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00050
- Ferguson, C.A. (1959) Diglossia. WORD, 15(2), 325-340. https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702
- Fishman, J. A. (1972). The sociology of language Rowley, Ma: Newbury House.
- Fishman, J. A. (1965). Who speaks what language to whom and when? La Linguistique, 2, 67-88.
- Fishman, J. (1972). Domains and the relationship between micro and macrosociolinguistics. Directions in Sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication. J.J. a. H. Gumperz, D. New York and Oxford, Basil Blackwell, pp. 435-453.
- Khan, A. A. Anees, M. Rahman, G. (2020). The Patterns of Code-Switching in Pashto- English Bilingual Data. Global Social Science Review, V(I), 123 ‒ 133. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2020(V-I).13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2020(V-I).13
- Khan, A.A. Bukhari, H.N. & Khalid, A. (2018). Pashto-English Bilingual data: Testing the Diagnostic Features for the Patterns of Codeswitching. Kashmir Journal of Language and Research, 21(1), 39-59
- Khan, A. A. Khalid, A. (2018).Pashto-English Code-switching: Testing the Morphosyntactic Constraints of the MLF Model. Lingua-Elsevier, 201, 78—91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2017.09.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2017.09.002
- Khan, A.A & Bukhari, H.N. (2015). Pashto-English Code-switching: A Device for Indigenization and the use of Loanwords. Kashmir Journal of Language and Research, 18(3), 128-142.
- Khan, A. A. & P. Muysken. (2014) Strategies for incorporating nouns and verbs in codeswitching: the case of Pashto-English bilingual speech. Lapudum, 18, 97-137. https://doi.org/10.4000/lapurdum.2514 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/lapurdum.2514
- Khan, A.A. (2011). Social Factors and English Codeswitching in the Pashto Language. Germany: Lap-Publishing.
- Gumperz, J. J. (1958). Dialect differences and social stratification in a North Indian Village. American anthropologist, 60(4), 668-682. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1958.60.4.02a00050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1958.60.4.02a00050
- Gumperz, J. J. (1976). Language, communication, and public negotiation. In Anthropology and the public interest (pp. 273-292). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-617650-6.50022-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-617650-6.50022-5
- Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511611834 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511611834
- Ho, J. W. Y. (2007). Code-mixing: Linguistic form and socio-cultural meaning. The International Journal of Language Society and Culture, 21(7), 1-8.
- Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. Sociolinguistics, 269-293.
- Hymes, D. (1964). Introduction: Toward Ethnographies of Communication. American anthropologist, 66(6_PART2), 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010
- Joshi. A. (1985). Processing sentences with intra-sentential code-switching ; in David Dowty. Lauri Karttunen and Arnold Zwicky (eds.) National LanguageParsing. New York: Academic press. pp. 190-205.
- Kamwangamalu, N. M. (1989). Codeâ€mixing and modernization. World Englishes, 8(3), 321-332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00672.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00672.x
- Karchu. Y. (1989) Codeswitching, Style Repertoire and language Variation: English in Hindu Poetic Creativity. World Englishes, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00671.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00671.x
- Labov, W. (1966). Social stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC. Center for Applied Linguistics.
- Milroy, Lesly and Muysken, Pieter (eds.), (1995). One speaker, two languages, cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620867 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620867
- Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual speech: A typology of Codeswitching.Cambridge University Press.
- Myer-Scotton, C. (1992a). Constructing the frame in intrasentential code-switching. Multilingua, 11, 101-27. https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.1992.11.1.101 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.1992.11.1.101
- Myers-Scotton, C. (1993a). Duelling Languages: Grammatical structure in Code-switching. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Myers-Scotton, C. (1993b) Social motivation for code-switching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford University Press.
- Myers, C. L. (1998). A theoretical introduction to the markedness model. Codes and consequences: Choosing linguistic varieties, 18.
- Myers-Scotton, C (1998) Codes and Consequences: Choosing Linguistic Varieties. Oxford University Press US.
- Myers-Scotton, C. and Bolonyai, A. (2001). Calculating speakers: Code-switching in a rational choice model. Language in society, 30, 1259-1271. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404501001014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404501001014
- Romaine, S. (1989). Bilingualism, Oxford: Blackwell.
- Sapir, E. (1929). The Status of Linguistic as a Science. Language, 5(4), 207-214. https://doi.org/10.2307/409588 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/409588
- Trudgill, P. (1992). Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x
- Trudgill, P., & Trudgill, S. (1974). The social differentiation of English in Norwich (Vol. 13). CUP Archive.
References
Auer, P. (1984). Bilingual Conversation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pb.v.8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/pb.v.8
Auer, P. (1988). A Conversation analytic approach to Code-switching and transfer. InHeller, M. (Ed), Code-Switching: Anthropological and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 187-213). Berlin: Moulton de Gruyter.
Aure, P. (1998). Code-switching in conversation: Language, interaction, and identity. London: Routledge.
Auer, P. (1995). The pragmatics of code-switching: A sequential approach. In Milroy and Muysken, PP. 15-135. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620867.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620867.006
Azuma, S. (1997). Lexical categories and code-switching: a study of Japanese/English code-switching in Japan. The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese, 31(2), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.2307/489656 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/489656
Azuma, S. (1993). The frame-content hypothesis in speech production: evidence from intra-sentential code-switching. Linguistics, 31,107-194. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1993.31.6.1071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1993.31.6.1071
Backus, A. (1998). Two in One. Bilingual Speech of Turkish Immigrants in the Netherlands. Tiburg: Tiburg University Press.
Blom, J. P. and Gumperz, J. J. (1972). Social meaning in linguistic structures: Code-switching in Norway. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Blom, J. P., & Gumperz, J. J. (2000). Social meaning in linguistic structure: Code-switching in Norway. The bilingualism reader, 111-136.
Blommaert, J. (1994). Code-switching and the exclusivity of social identities: Some data from Campus Kiswahili. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,13, 57-70. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1992.9994483 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1992.9994483
Bucholtz, Marry, and Kira Hall. (2005). Identity and Interaction: A Sociocultural Linguistic Approach: Discourse Studies, 7, 4-5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445605054407 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445605054407
Chomsky, N. (1957). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge MIT Press.
Ervin-Tripp, S.M. (1964). An Analysis of the interaction of language, topic, and listener. American Anthropologist, 66, 86-102. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00050
Ferguson, C.A. (1959) Diglossia. WORD, 15(2), 325-340. https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702
Fishman, J. A. (1972). The sociology of language Rowley, Ma: Newbury House.
Fishman, J. A. (1965). Who speaks what language to whom and when? La Linguistique, 2, 67-88.
Fishman, J. (1972). Domains and the relationship between micro and macrosociolinguistics. Directions in Sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication. J.J. a. H. Gumperz, D. New York and Oxford, Basil Blackwell, pp. 435-453.
Khan, A. A. Anees, M. Rahman, G. (2020). The Patterns of Code-Switching in Pashto- English Bilingual Data. Global Social Science Review, V(I), 123 ‒ 133. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2020(V-I).13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2020(V-I).13
Khan, A.A. Bukhari, H.N. & Khalid, A. (2018). Pashto-English Bilingual data: Testing the Diagnostic Features for the Patterns of Codeswitching. Kashmir Journal of Language and Research, 21(1), 39-59
Khan, A. A. Khalid, A. (2018).Pashto-English Code-switching: Testing the Morphosyntactic Constraints of the MLF Model. Lingua-Elsevier, 201, 78—91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2017.09.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2017.09.002
Khan, A.A & Bukhari, H.N. (2015). Pashto-English Code-switching: A Device for Indigenization and the use of Loanwords. Kashmir Journal of Language and Research, 18(3), 128-142.
Khan, A. A. & P. Muysken. (2014) Strategies for incorporating nouns and verbs in codeswitching: the case of Pashto-English bilingual speech. Lapudum, 18, 97-137. https://doi.org/10.4000/lapurdum.2514 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/lapurdum.2514
Khan, A.A. (2011). Social Factors and English Codeswitching in the Pashto Language. Germany: Lap-Publishing.
Gumperz, J. J. (1958). Dialect differences and social stratification in a North Indian Village. American anthropologist, 60(4), 668-682. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1958.60.4.02a00050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1958.60.4.02a00050
Gumperz, J. J. (1976). Language, communication, and public negotiation. In Anthropology and the public interest (pp. 273-292). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-617650-6.50022-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-617650-6.50022-5
Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511611834 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511611834
Ho, J. W. Y. (2007). Code-mixing: Linguistic form and socio-cultural meaning. The International Journal of Language Society and Culture, 21(7), 1-8.
Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. Sociolinguistics, 269-293.
Hymes, D. (1964). Introduction: Toward Ethnographies of Communication. American anthropologist, 66(6_PART2), 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010
Joshi. A. (1985). Processing sentences with intra-sentential code-switching ; in David Dowty. Lauri Karttunen and Arnold Zwicky (eds.) National LanguageParsing. New York: Academic press. pp. 190-205.
Kamwangamalu, N. M. (1989). Codeâ€mixing and modernization. World Englishes, 8(3), 321-332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00672.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00672.x
Karchu. Y. (1989) Codeswitching, Style Repertoire and language Variation: English in Hindu Poetic Creativity. World Englishes, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00671.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00671.x
Labov, W. (1966). Social stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC. Center for Applied Linguistics.
Milroy, Lesly and Muysken, Pieter (eds.), (1995). One speaker, two languages, cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620867 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620867
Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual speech: A typology of Codeswitching.Cambridge University Press.
Myer-Scotton, C. (1992a). Constructing the frame in intrasentential code-switching. Multilingua, 11, 101-27. https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.1992.11.1.101 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.1992.11.1.101
Myers-Scotton, C. (1993a). Duelling Languages: Grammatical structure in Code-switching. New York: Oxford University Press.
Myers-Scotton, C. (1993b) Social motivation for code-switching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford University Press.
Myers, C. L. (1998). A theoretical introduction to the markedness model. Codes and consequences: Choosing linguistic varieties, 18.
Myers-Scotton, C (1998) Codes and Consequences: Choosing Linguistic Varieties. Oxford University Press US.
Myers-Scotton, C. and Bolonyai, A. (2001). Calculating speakers: Code-switching in a rational choice model. Language in society, 30, 1259-1271. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404501001014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404501001014
Romaine, S. (1989). Bilingualism, Oxford: Blackwell.
Sapir, E. (1929). The Status of Linguistic as a Science. Language, 5(4), 207-214. https://doi.org/10.2307/409588 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/409588
Trudgill, P. (1992). Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x
Trudgill, P., & Trudgill, S. (1974). The social differentiation of English in Norwich (Vol. 13). CUP Archive.