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TRANSITIONS IN GLOBAL POLARITY AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA’S STRATEGY TOWARD SOUTH ASIA
Corresponding Author(s) : Ahmed Ijaz Malik
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 8 No. 4 (2020): July
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study intends to explore the discourses on patterns of systemic polarity. The study of these discourses helps in the development of the discipline of International Relations. The study also explores the foreign policy of the United States - being the greatest power of the time and claiming to be the custodian of the prevailing international order – towards South Asia.
Methodology: This is a qualitative explanatory and exploratory study. The specific method utilized to conduct the study remains the discourse analysis.
Main Findings: The study finds that international polarity is a continuous process of transition. These are a combination of systemic and sub-systemic actors and factors that contribute to this transition.
Applications of this study: The study is useful for students and scholars of International Relations, Area Studies, Strategic Studies, and allied disciplines. It is equally useful for policy practitioners.
Novelty/Originality of this study: The discourses on patterns of international polarity have contributed to the development of International Relations as a discipline. A significant debate on the discourses of international polarity has been the pattern of post-Cold War and Post-9/11 orders. While there has been a relatively dominant claim that this era overall shows evidence of unipolarity; there is an equally influential claim that the international order appears multipolar. There is however a need to address a primary question that demands an inquiry into the type of multipolarity in the post-Cold War and post-9/11 eras as it is assumed that the dynamics of international order and great power rivalries in this era are significantly different from the earlier patterns of international multipolarity. This inquiry is informed by focusing on the policies of great powers toward south Asia and the transforming geostrategic and economic relations between significant South Asian states.
Keywords
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- Al-Ali, N., Pratt, N., & Enloe, C. (2009). What Kind of Liberation?: Women and the Occupation of Iraq. University of California Press.
- Beck, U. (2000). The Brave New World of Work (P. Camiller, Trans.). Polity Press.
- Beck, U. (2007). Cosmopolitan Vision (C. Cronin, Trans.). Polity.
- Beeson, M. (2009). Comment: Trading places? China, the United States and the evolution of the international political economy. Review of International Political Economy, 16(4), 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/096 92290802427766 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290802427766
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- Bond, P. (2014). BRICS and the tendency to sub-imperialism. Pambazuka News, 10. https://www.pambazuka .org/governance/brics-and-tendency-sub-imperialism
- Bureau of Indian Standards. (2018). Details on MOUs signed with Countries/Organizations: Memorandum of Understanding between the Bureau of Indian Standards and Afghan National Standardization Authority on cooperation in the field of standardization. Government of India. https://bis.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/List_of_MoUs_-_MRAs.pdf
- Callinicos, A. (2009). Imperialism and Global Political Economy. Polity.
- Carney, C. P. (1989). International patron-client relationships: A conceptual framework. Studies In Comparative International Development, 24(2), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02687171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02687171
- Colucci, L. (2015). Great Power Conflict: Will It Return? World Affairs, 177(5), 44–53.
- Fettweis, C. J. (2004). Evaluating IR’s Crystal Balls: How Predictions of the Future Have Withstood Fourteen Years of Unipolarity. International Studies Review, 6(1), 79–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1079-1760.2004.00373.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1079-1760.2004.00373.x
- Galtung, J. (1971). A Structural Theory of Imperialism. Journal of Peace Research, 8(2), 81–117. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002234337100800201
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- Gavin, F. J. (2010). Same As It Ever Was: Nuclear Alarmism, Proliferation, and the Cold War. International Security, 34(3), 7–37. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.7
- Ghani, A., & Lockhart, C. (2009). Fixing failed states. Oxford University Press.
- Gilpin, R. (2001). Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order. Princeton University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400831272
- Gowan, P. (1999). The Global Gamble: Washington’s Faustian Bid for World Dominance (y First edition thus). Verso.
- Halliday, F. (1989). The Making of the Second Cold War. Verso.
- Halliday, F. (1999). The potentials of Enlightenment. Review of International Studies, 25(5), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210599001059 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210599001059
- Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2005). Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire. Penguin Books.
- Held, D. (1995). Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance. Stanford University Press.
- Hopf, T. (1991). Polarity, the Offense-Defense Balance, and War. American Political Science Review, 85(2), 475–493. https://doi.org/10.2307/1963170 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1963170
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- Ikenberry, G. J. (2003). Is American multilateralism in decline? Perspectives on Politics, 1, 533–550. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592703000380
- Ikenberry, G. J., Mastanduno, M., & Wohlforth, W. C. (2009). Unipolarity, state behavior, and systemic consequences. World Politics, 61(01), 1–27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S004388710900001X
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- Kaldor, M. (2003). Global Civil Society: An Answer to War. Polity. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.00324
- Kissinger, H. (1994). Diplomacy. Simon and Schuster.
- Kleingeld, P. (1998). Kant’s Cosmopolitan Law: World Citizenship for a Global Order. Kantian Review, 2, 72–90. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1369415400000200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1369415400000200
- Krauthammer, C. (1990). The unipolar moment. Foreign Affairs, 70(1), 23–33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20044692
- Kymlicka, W. (1995). Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/0198290918.001.0001
- Layne, C. (1997). From Preponderance to Offshore Balancing: America’s Future Grand Strategy. International Security, 22(1), 86–124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.22.1.86
- Layne, C. (2006). The unipolar illusion revisited: The coming end of the United States’ unipolar moment. International Security, 31(2), 7–41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2006.31.2.7
- Layne, C. (2012). This Time It’s Real: The End of Unipolarity and the Pax Americana. International Studies Quarterly, 56(1), 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00704.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00704.x
- Mabee, B. (2016). From ‘liberal war’ to ‘liberal militarism’: United States security policy as the promotion of military modernity. Critical Military Studies, 2(3), 242–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/23337486.2016.1184418 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23337486.2016.1184418
- Makarychev, A., & Morozov, V. (2011). Multilateralism, Multipolarity, and Beyond: A Menu of Russia’s Policy Strategies. Global Governance, 17, 353. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/19426720-01703006
- Malik, A. I. (2016). Democratic Peace, Pakistan-India relations and the possibilities of economic cooperation in South Asia. South Asian Studies, 31(1), 223–244.
- Malik, A. I. (2017). China’s Financial Models and Monetary Strategies: Implications for Sino-Pak Economic Collaboration. Pakistan Horizon, 70(3).
- Mearsheimer, J. J. (1990). Back to the future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War. International Security, 15(1), 5–56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2538981
- Mearsheimer, J. J. (2017, January 18). Valdai Discussion Club, Centre for Comprehensive European and International Studies, National Research University, Higher School of Economics (T. Bordachev, Interviewer) [Interview]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoWMn8H7u1Q
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- Rapkin, D. P., Thompson, W. R., & Christopherson, J. A. (1979). Bipolarity and Bipolarization in the Cold War Era: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Validation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 23(2), 261–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/002200277902300203 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002200277902300203
- Rostami-Povey, E. (2007). Afghan Women: Identity and Invasion. Zed Books. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350218062
- Ruggie, J. G. (1998). Constructing the World Polity: Essays on International Institutionalisation. Routledge.
- Saull, R. (2011). Social conflict and the global Cold War. International Affairs, 87(5), 1123–1140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2011.01024.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2011.01024.x
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- Schweller, R. L., & Pu, X. (2011). After Unipolarity: China’s Visions of International Order in an Era of U.S. Decline. International Security, 36(1), 41–72. https://doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00044
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- Wohlforth, W. C. (2012). How Not to Evaluate Theories. International Studies Quarterly, 56(1), 219–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00708.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00708.x
- Yeisley, M. O. (2011). Bipolarity, Proxy Wars, and the Rise of China. Strategic Studies Quarterly, 5(4), 75–91.
- Yusufzai, R. (2018, February 21). Determination needed to improve Pakistani-Afghan relations. Arab News. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1251376
- Zartman, I. W. (Ed.). (1995). Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority. Lynne Rienner Pub. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781685853907
- Zoppo, C. E. (1966). Nuclear Technology, Multipolarity, and International Stability. World Politics, 18(4), 579–606. https://doi.org/10.2307/2009806 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2009806
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Beck, U. (2000). The Brave New World of Work (P. Camiller, Trans.). Polity Press.
Beck, U. (2007). Cosmopolitan Vision (C. Cronin, Trans.). Polity.
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Makarychev, A., & Morozov, V. (2011). Multilateralism, Multipolarity, and Beyond: A Menu of Russia’s Policy Strategies. Global Governance, 17, 353. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/19426720-01703006
Malik, A. I. (2016). Democratic Peace, Pakistan-India relations and the possibilities of economic cooperation in South Asia. South Asian Studies, 31(1), 223–244.
Malik, A. I. (2017). China’s Financial Models and Monetary Strategies: Implications for Sino-Pak Economic Collaboration. Pakistan Horizon, 70(3).
Mearsheimer, J. J. (1990). Back to the future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War. International Security, 15(1), 5–56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2538981
Mearsheimer, J. J. (2017, January 18). Valdai Discussion Club, Centre for Comprehensive European and International Studies, National Research University, Higher School of Economics (T. Bordachev, Interviewer) [Interview]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoWMn8H7u1Q
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Rostami-Povey, E. (2007). Afghan Women: Identity and Invasion. Zed Books. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350218062
Ruggie, J. G. (1998). Constructing the World Polity: Essays on International Institutionalisation. Routledge.
Saull, R. (2011). Social conflict and the global Cold War. International Affairs, 87(5), 1123–1140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2011.01024.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2011.01024.x
Schweller, R. L. (2011). Emerging Powers in an Age of Disorder. Global Governance, 17, 285. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/19426720-01703002
Schweller, R. L., & Pu, X. (2011). After Unipolarity: China’s Visions of International Order in an Era of U.S. Decline. International Security, 36(1), 41–72. https://doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00044
Udo-Akang, D. (2012). Theoretical constructs, concepts, and applications. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2(9), 89–97.
Wagner, R. H. (1993). What was bipolarity? International Organization, 47(1), 77–106. https://doi.org/10.10 17/S0020818300004719 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300004719
Walt, S. M. (2009). Alliances in a Unipolar World. World Politics, 61(1), 86–120. https://doi.org/10.101 7/S0043887109000045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887109000045
Wilson, K. G. (2001). Some notes on theoretical constructs: Types and validation from a contextual behavioral perspective. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 1(2), 205–215.
Wohlforth, W. C. (1999). The Stability of a Unipolar World. International Security, 24(1), 5–41. https://doi.org /10.1162/016228899560031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/016228899560031
Wohlforth, W. C. (2009). Unipolarity, Status Competition, and Great Power War. World Politics, 61(1), 28–57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.0.0028
Wohlforth, W. C. (2012). How Not to Evaluate Theories. International Studies Quarterly, 56(1), 219–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00708.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00708.x
Yeisley, M. O. (2011). Bipolarity, Proxy Wars, and the Rise of China. Strategic Studies Quarterly, 5(4), 75–91.
Yusufzai, R. (2018, February 21). Determination needed to improve Pakistani-Afghan relations. Arab News. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1251376
Zartman, I. W. (Ed.). (1995). Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority. Lynne Rienner Pub. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781685853907
Zoppo, C. E. (1966). Nuclear Technology, Multipolarity, and International Stability. World Politics, 18(4), 579–606. https://doi.org/10.2307/2009806 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2009806