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IS CHINA PURSUING A ‘REGIONAL’ HEGEMONY? STRATEGIC SOURCES OF CHINA’SASSERTIVE-CUM-BENEVOLENT BEHAVIOUR
Corresponding Author(s) : Muhammad Nadeem Mirza
Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews,
Vol. 8 No. 6 (2020): November
Abstract
Purpose of the study: Besides analyzing multilateral fora and their importance for China’s ‘Asia Dream,’ this study celaborates on the strategic sources of China’s behavior in the Asia-Pacific and beyond and the strategic initiatives that it has taken to preserve and expand its influence.
Methodology: This is a qualitative explanatory case study. The research is conducted using an embedded case study in which phenomena under investigation are analyzed at the individual, state, and system levels. Primary data in the form of speeches (mostly of President Xi Jinping) and white papers issued by the Chinese government are used.
Main Findings: China’s contemporary behavior has not only made its foreign policy vital for the pursuance of its interests but has also been gauged by the regional states with a mix of skepticism and opportunism. On the one hand, China’s assertiveness is perceived as a threat by the regional and some extra-regional states, forcing them to pursue balancing and/or hedging strategies. On the other, they have capitalized upon Chinese-led multilateral initiatives to strengthen themselves by bringing their economies in alignment with that of China. The study deliberates the historical traditions of Tianxia and Neo-Confucianism and their impact on contemporary Chinese strategic thinking. The study finds that China's strategic behavior under President Xi Jinping has metamorphosed into an admix of assertiveness and benevolence carefully crafted to pursue its core interests – an aspiring benevolent ‘regional’ hegemon.
Applications of this study: The study is useful for the students, scholars, and policy practitioners of International Relations and Area Studies, specifically those involved with China and the Asia Pacific.
Novelty/Originality of this study: China has been accused of pursuing hegemonistic designs in the region and beyond. This study dissects this discourse while seeing whether those who are generating the discourse are benefitting from China’s overtures or not.
Keywords
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- ADB. (2017). Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs. Asian Development Bank. https://www.adb.org/sites/default /files/publication/227496/special-report-infrastructure.pdf
- Baviera, A. S. P. (2016). China’s Strategic Foreign Initiatives Under Xi Jinping. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 02(01), 57–79. https://doi.org/10.1142/S2377740016500032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S2377740016500032
- Brooks, S. G. (2012). Can we identify a benevolent hegemon? Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 25(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2011.566551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2011.566551
- Canals, C. (2014, June 5). China, at the heart of «Factory Asia». Caixa Bank Research. https://www.caixabank research.com/en/china-heart-factory-asia
- Censer, J. R. (2001). Liberty, equality, fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution. Penn State Press.
- Dorrien, G. (2004). “Benevolent Global Hegemonyâ€: William Kristol and the Politics of American Empire. Logos Journal. http://www.logosjournal.com/dorrien.htm
- Dutta, S. (1998). China’s emerging power and military role: Implications for South Asia. In In China’s Shadow: Regional Perspectives on Chinese Foreign Policy and Military Development (pp. 91–114). RAND Corporation.
- Farwa, U., & Siddiqa, A. (2017). CPEC: Prospects of OBOR and South-South Cooperation. Strategic Studies, 37(3), 75–91.
- Ferchen, M. (2016). China, Economic Development, and Global Security: Bridging the Gaps (Policy Paper). Carnegie-Tsinghua Center for Global Policy. https://carnegietsinghua.org/2016/12/09/china-economic-development-and-global-security-bridging-gaps-pub-66397
- Gill, I., Lall, S. V., &Lebrand, M. (2019, June 21). Winners and losers along China’s Belt and Road. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2019/06/21/winners-and-losers-along-chinas-belt-and-road/
- Glaser, B., &Viers, A. (2016). US-China Relations: Friction and Cooperation Advance Simultaneously. Comparative Connections, 18(2), 25–38.
- Huang, Z. (2017, February 22). Chinese president Xi Jinping has vowed to lead the “new world order.†Quartz. https://qz.com/916382/chinese-president-xi-jinping-has-vowed-to-lead-the-new-world-order/
- Huaxia. (2019, September 14). Spotlight: BRI participating countries reap benefits after 6 years’ joint construction. Xinhua Net. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-09/14/c_138391095.htm
- Ikenberry, G. J. (2002). America’s imperial ambition. Foreign Affairs, September/October, 44–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20033268
- Ikenberry, G. J. (2008). The Rise of China and the Future of the West—Can the Liberal System Survive. Foreign Affairs, 87, 23–38.
- Ikenberry, G. J., & Lim, D. J. (2017). China’s emerging institutional statecraft: The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the prospects for counter-hegemony. Project on International Order and Strategy at Brookings.
- Jiechi, Y. (2019, February 17). Full text of Yang Jiechi’s keynote speech at the 55th Munich Security Conference. Xinhua Net. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-02/17/c_137827311.htm
- Jinping, X. (2015a). Speech at the Central Conference on Foreign Affairs (November 28, 2014). In The Governance of China. Shanghai Press.
- Jinping, X. (2015b). The Governance of China. Shanghai Press.
- Jinping, X. (2017, February 17). Xi Jinping presided over the National Security Work Symposium. Xinhua. http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2017-02/17/c_1120486809.htm
- Jinping, X. (2018, June 10). Full text of Chinese President Xi Jinping’s speech at the 18th SCO Qingdao summit. Xinhua Net. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/10/c_137244587.htm
- Johnson, C. K., Bower, E. Z., Cha, V. D., Green, M. J., & Goodman, M. P. (2014). Decoding China’s Emerging" Great Power" Strategy in Asia. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
- Kallio, J. (2015). Dreaming of the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation. Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 8(4), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-015-0097-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-015-0097-4
- Kent, A. E. (2013). China’s participation in international organisations. In Z. Yongjin& A. Greg (Eds.), Power and responsibility in Chinese foreign policy. Asia Pacific Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22459/PRCFP.01.2014.06
- Lai, D. (2011). The United States and China in Power Transition. Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College DOI: https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA555133
- Lee, V. R. (2015, March 16). China’s New Military Installations in the Spratly Islands: Satellite Image Update. Medium. https://medium.com/satellite-image-analysis/china-s-new-military-installations-in-the-spratly-islands-satellite-image-update-1169bacc07f9
- Li, M. (2020). The Belt and Road Initiative: Geo-economics and Indo-Pacific security competition. International Affairs, 96(1), 169–187. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz240 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz240
- Lijun, S. (2006). Review: China Rising: Power and Motivation in Chinese Foreign Policy. The China Journal, 55, 234–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20066172
- Macdonald, P. K. (2018). America First? Explaining Continuity and Change in Trump’s Foreign Policy. Political Science Quarterly, 133(3), 401–435. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/polq.12804
- Mearsheimer, J. J. (2014, October 25). Can China Rise Peacefully? The National Interest. https://nationalinterest.org/commentary/can-china-rise-peacefully-10204
- Mirza, M. N. (2013). Determinants of the American Foreign Policy towards Pakistan. Université Toulouse 1, Capitole.
- Mirza, M. N. (2017, May 16). Contending Interests of Big Powers in Central Asia. Regional Security and Foreign Policy in South, Central and West Asia, Islamabad.
- Mirza, M. N. (2018). Enduring Legacy of Realism and the US Foreign Policy: Dynamics of Prudence, National Interest and Balance of Power. Orient Research Journal of Social Sciences, 3(2), 163–176.
- Roosevelt, F. D. (1941). “Four freedoms speech†Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union. US Government.
- Roy, D. (2003). China’s reaction to American predominance. Survival, 45(3), 57–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0039.2003.10071607.
- Sarkar, M. G. (2020). China and QUAD 2.0: Between response and regional construct. Maritime Affairs: Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India, 16(1), 110–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/0 9733159.2020.1794526 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09733159.2020.1794526
- Sørensen, C. T. N. (2015). The Significance of Xi Jinping’s “Chinese Dream†for Chinese Foreign Policy: From “Tao Guang Yang Hui†to “Fen Fa You Wei.†Journal of China and International Relations, 3(1), 54–73. https://doi.org/10.5278/ojs.jcir.v3i1.1146
- Tingyang, Z. (2018, February 7). Can this ancient Chinese philosophy save us from global chaos? Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/theworldpost/wp/2018/02/07/tianxia/
- Tingyang, Z. (2019). Redefining A Philosophy for World Governance. Palgrave Pivot.
- Turcsányi, R. Q. (2018). Chinese Assertive Actions in the South China Sea: Power Sources, Domestic Politics, and Reactive Foreign Policy. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67648-7_2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1355/cs40-2k
- Wilson, W. (1918, January 8). Fourteen Points [President Speech]. Joint Session of the U.S. Congress, Washington D.C.
- Yang, Y. E., & Liu, X. (2012). The ‘China Threat’ through the Lens of US Print Media: 1992–2006. Journal of Contemporary China, 21(76), 695–711. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2012.666838 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2012.666838
- Yeo, A. (2019). America First, China’s Rise, and Regional Order. In Asia’s Regional Architecture Alliances and Institutions in the Pacific Century (pp. 149–171). Stanford University Press. https://www.degruyter.com/d ocument/doi/10.1515/9781503608801-009/html DOI: https://doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9781503608443.003.0006
- Zhang, F. (2010). The tianxia system: World order in a Chinese utopia. Global Asia, 4(4), 108–112.
- Zhang, F. (2013). The rise of Chinese exceptionalism in international relations. European Journal of International Relations, 19(2), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066111421038 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066111421038
- Zhang, L. (2013). China’s traditional cultural values and national identity. Carnegie-Tsinghua Center for Global Policy.
- Zhao, S. (2015). Rethinking the Chinese World Order: The imperial cycle and the rise of China. Journal of Contemporary China, 24(96), 961–982. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2015.1030913
References
ADB. (2017). Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs. Asian Development Bank. https://www.adb.org/sites/default /files/publication/227496/special-report-infrastructure.pdf
Baviera, A. S. P. (2016). China’s Strategic Foreign Initiatives Under Xi Jinping. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 02(01), 57–79. https://doi.org/10.1142/S2377740016500032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S2377740016500032
Brooks, S. G. (2012). Can we identify a benevolent hegemon? Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 25(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2011.566551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2011.566551
Canals, C. (2014, June 5). China, at the heart of «Factory Asia». Caixa Bank Research. https://www.caixabank research.com/en/china-heart-factory-asia
Censer, J. R. (2001). Liberty, equality, fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution. Penn State Press.
Dorrien, G. (2004). “Benevolent Global Hegemonyâ€: William Kristol and the Politics of American Empire. Logos Journal. http://www.logosjournal.com/dorrien.htm
Dutta, S. (1998). China’s emerging power and military role: Implications for South Asia. In In China’s Shadow: Regional Perspectives on Chinese Foreign Policy and Military Development (pp. 91–114). RAND Corporation.
Farwa, U., & Siddiqa, A. (2017). CPEC: Prospects of OBOR and South-South Cooperation. Strategic Studies, 37(3), 75–91.
Ferchen, M. (2016). China, Economic Development, and Global Security: Bridging the Gaps (Policy Paper). Carnegie-Tsinghua Center for Global Policy. https://carnegietsinghua.org/2016/12/09/china-economic-development-and-global-security-bridging-gaps-pub-66397
Gill, I., Lall, S. V., &Lebrand, M. (2019, June 21). Winners and losers along China’s Belt and Road. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2019/06/21/winners-and-losers-along-chinas-belt-and-road/
Glaser, B., &Viers, A. (2016). US-China Relations: Friction and Cooperation Advance Simultaneously. Comparative Connections, 18(2), 25–38.
Huang, Z. (2017, February 22). Chinese president Xi Jinping has vowed to lead the “new world order.†Quartz. https://qz.com/916382/chinese-president-xi-jinping-has-vowed-to-lead-the-new-world-order/
Huaxia. (2019, September 14). Spotlight: BRI participating countries reap benefits after 6 years’ joint construction. Xinhua Net. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-09/14/c_138391095.htm
Ikenberry, G. J. (2002). America’s imperial ambition. Foreign Affairs, September/October, 44–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20033268
Ikenberry, G. J. (2008). The Rise of China and the Future of the West—Can the Liberal System Survive. Foreign Affairs, 87, 23–38.
Ikenberry, G. J., & Lim, D. J. (2017). China’s emerging institutional statecraft: The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the prospects for counter-hegemony. Project on International Order and Strategy at Brookings.
Jiechi, Y. (2019, February 17). Full text of Yang Jiechi’s keynote speech at the 55th Munich Security Conference. Xinhua Net. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-02/17/c_137827311.htm
Jinping, X. (2015a). Speech at the Central Conference on Foreign Affairs (November 28, 2014). In The Governance of China. Shanghai Press.
Jinping, X. (2015b). The Governance of China. Shanghai Press.
Jinping, X. (2017, February 17). Xi Jinping presided over the National Security Work Symposium. Xinhua. http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2017-02/17/c_1120486809.htm
Jinping, X. (2018, June 10). Full text of Chinese President Xi Jinping’s speech at the 18th SCO Qingdao summit. Xinhua Net. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/10/c_137244587.htm
Johnson, C. K., Bower, E. Z., Cha, V. D., Green, M. J., & Goodman, M. P. (2014). Decoding China’s Emerging" Great Power" Strategy in Asia. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
Kallio, J. (2015). Dreaming of the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation. Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 8(4), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-015-0097-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-015-0097-4
Kent, A. E. (2013). China’s participation in international organisations. In Z. Yongjin& A. Greg (Eds.), Power and responsibility in Chinese foreign policy. Asia Pacific Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22459/PRCFP.01.2014.06
Lai, D. (2011). The United States and China in Power Transition. Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College DOI: https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA555133
Lee, V. R. (2015, March 16). China’s New Military Installations in the Spratly Islands: Satellite Image Update. Medium. https://medium.com/satellite-image-analysis/china-s-new-military-installations-in-the-spratly-islands-satellite-image-update-1169bacc07f9
Li, M. (2020). The Belt and Road Initiative: Geo-economics and Indo-Pacific security competition. International Affairs, 96(1), 169–187. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz240 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz240
Lijun, S. (2006). Review: China Rising: Power and Motivation in Chinese Foreign Policy. The China Journal, 55, 234–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20066172
Macdonald, P. K. (2018). America First? Explaining Continuity and Change in Trump’s Foreign Policy. Political Science Quarterly, 133(3), 401–435. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/polq.12804
Mearsheimer, J. J. (2014, October 25). Can China Rise Peacefully? The National Interest. https://nationalinterest.org/commentary/can-china-rise-peacefully-10204
Mirza, M. N. (2013). Determinants of the American Foreign Policy towards Pakistan. Université Toulouse 1, Capitole.
Mirza, M. N. (2017, May 16). Contending Interests of Big Powers in Central Asia. Regional Security and Foreign Policy in South, Central and West Asia, Islamabad.
Mirza, M. N. (2018). Enduring Legacy of Realism and the US Foreign Policy: Dynamics of Prudence, National Interest and Balance of Power. Orient Research Journal of Social Sciences, 3(2), 163–176.
Roosevelt, F. D. (1941). “Four freedoms speech†Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union. US Government.
Roy, D. (2003). China’s reaction to American predominance. Survival, 45(3), 57–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0039.2003.10071607.
Sarkar, M. G. (2020). China and QUAD 2.0: Between response and regional construct. Maritime Affairs: Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India, 16(1), 110–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/0 9733159.2020.1794526 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09733159.2020.1794526
Sørensen, C. T. N. (2015). The Significance of Xi Jinping’s “Chinese Dream†for Chinese Foreign Policy: From “Tao Guang Yang Hui†to “Fen Fa You Wei.†Journal of China and International Relations, 3(1), 54–73. https://doi.org/10.5278/ojs.jcir.v3i1.1146
Tingyang, Z. (2018, February 7). Can this ancient Chinese philosophy save us from global chaos? Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/theworldpost/wp/2018/02/07/tianxia/
Tingyang, Z. (2019). Redefining A Philosophy for World Governance. Palgrave Pivot.
Turcsányi, R. Q. (2018). Chinese Assertive Actions in the South China Sea: Power Sources, Domestic Politics, and Reactive Foreign Policy. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67648-7_2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1355/cs40-2k
Wilson, W. (1918, January 8). Fourteen Points [President Speech]. Joint Session of the U.S. Congress, Washington D.C.
Yang, Y. E., & Liu, X. (2012). The ‘China Threat’ through the Lens of US Print Media: 1992–2006. Journal of Contemporary China, 21(76), 695–711. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2012.666838 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2012.666838
Yeo, A. (2019). America First, China’s Rise, and Regional Order. In Asia’s Regional Architecture Alliances and Institutions in the Pacific Century (pp. 149–171). Stanford University Press. https://www.degruyter.com/d ocument/doi/10.1515/9781503608801-009/html DOI: https://doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9781503608443.003.0006
Zhang, F. (2010). The tianxia system: World order in a Chinese utopia. Global Asia, 4(4), 108–112.
Zhang, F. (2013). The rise of Chinese exceptionalism in international relations. European Journal of International Relations, 19(2), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066111421038 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066111421038
Zhang, L. (2013). China’s traditional cultural values and national identity. Carnegie-Tsinghua Center for Global Policy.
Zhao, S. (2015). Rethinking the Chinese World Order: The imperial cycle and the rise of China. Journal of Contemporary China, 24(96), 961–982. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2015.1030913